' 

'^twH 

^"'■'''-' 

. 

ft.:: 

THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


<d' 


^jn 


^'Tv.^ 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  TEXT-BOOKS 

EDITED    BY 

A.   F.   NIGHTINGALE,   Ph.  D. 

SUPERINTENDENT   OF    HIGH    SCHOOLS,    CHICAGO 


STATE  nOKMAL  SCHOOL, 

IMAAHOMiUiOlllli 


A    Pi.NE    FOREST    IN    THE    NORTH. 


TWENTIETH    CENTURY    TEXT-BOOKS 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF 

COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

CYRUS  C.   ADAMS,  B.  A.,   F.  A.  G.  S. 

CORRESPONDING    MEMBER    OF   THE    PHILADELPHIA    GEOGRAPHICAL 

SOCIETY  ;    FORMERLY    PRESIDENT    OF   THE    DEPARTMENT    OF 

GEOGRAPHY,    BROOKLYN    INSTITUTE    OF    ARTS    AND 

SCIENCES.     AND     A     COUNCILLOR     OF     THE 

AMERICAN    GEOGRAPHICAL    SOCIETY 


©2.3 


NEW    YORK 
APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 
1 90 1 


Copyright,   1901 
By   D.    APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

PREFACE 


The  author  has  endeavored  to  limit  the  contents  of 
this  text-book  of  Commercial  Geography  to  those  dominat- 
ing features  of  commerce  and  industry  that  should  be 
most  strongly  impressed  upon  the  student.  The  facts  of 
commerce  are  treated  as  the  effect  of  conditions  that  de- 
termine the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  trade.  The  effort 
is  made  throughout  the  book  to  connect  cause  and  effect ; 
to  trace  the  great  and  small  streams  of  commerce,  and  also 
to  show  the  causes  that  give  them  direction  and  volume. 
Geographic  and  many  other  controlling  influences,  such  as 
inventions,  governmental  aids  or  impediments,  and  the  im- 
provement of  products,  industrial  processes,  and  means  of 
transportation,  are  therefore  made  prominent. 

As  a  large  number  of  articles  entering  into  commerce 
may  more  properly  be  treated  in  a  handbook  than  a  text- 
book of  Commercial  Geography,  such,  for  example,  as  most 
of  the  two  hundred  by-products  of  petroleum,  they  are  not 
even  mentioned  in  this  volume.  The  commodities  enter- 
ing most  extensively  into  trade  are  sufficiently  numerous, 
and  attention  has  been  confined  to  these  commodities  be- 
cause they  have  a  greater  educational  value  in  any  attempt 
to  elucidate  for  the  classroom  the  nature  of  commerce  and 
its  underlying  principles. 

Each  product  is  treated  in  the  chapter  relating  to  the 
commerce  of  that  country  in  which  the  production  or 
manufacture  of  the  commodity  is  specially  prominent. 
This  plan  is  regarded  as  preferable  to  grouping  products 


vi  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

under  the  lieads  of  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  com- 
modities, which  would  involve  some  weeks  of  rather  tedious 
labor,  of  an  encyclopaedic  nature,  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dent. Cotton  and  its  natural  distribution,  for  example, 
gain  vital  interest  if  treated  in  the  United  States,  where 
cotton  is  most  important,  along  with  the  facts  relating  to 
its  manufacture  and  the  general  trade  in  it ;  while  in  Eng- 
land, Egypt,  India,  and  Eussian  Central  Asia  cotton  is 
treated  only  in  its  local  application.  A  full  index  to  all 
the  information  in  the  volume  will  be  found  useful  for 
reference. 

Comparatively  few  statistics  are  included  in  the  text. 
The  statistical  tables,  at  the  end  of  most  of  the  chapters, 
relate  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  chapter  to  which  they 
are  appended ;  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  be  found  full  of 
information,  which,  in  small  space,  will  helpfully  supple- 
ment the  text.  No  statistics  have  been  used  that  are  not 
believed  to  represent  normal  conditions ;  for  this  reason 
older  data,  in  some  instances,  have  been  regarded  as  prefer- 
able to  the  latest  information.  No  figures  relating  to  some 
countries  have  been  used ;  in  Cuba,  for  example,  statistical 
data  relating  either  to  the  present  time  or  the  period  be- 
fore the  insurrection  of  1895  fail  to  represent  normal  con- 
ditions of  trade. 

The  maps  have  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  illuminat- 
ing the  text,  and  conveying  much  information  that  could 
not  otherwise  be  so  graphically  imparted.  Most  of  them 
are  compilations  from  a  considerable  number  of  official  and 
other  authoritative  map  sources,  each  contributing  more  or 
less  data  required  for  the  purpose  of  the  book.  On  a  few 
maps,  reproduced  from  foreign  sources,  the  origin  of  each 
map  is  indicated  on  the  margin.  The  maps  of  Latin 
America  were  collated  with  very  little  cartographic  mate- 
rial, mainly  from  data  derived  from  official  sources  and  the 
consular  reports  of  the  United  States.  The  author  is  spe- 
cially indebted  to  maps  in  the  Geographisches  Handbuch 


PREFACE  vii 

zii  Andrees  Handatlas,  Leipzig,  the  Atlas  General  of  Vidal- 
Lablache,  Paris,  the  Atlas  fiir  Handelsschulen  by  Dr.  K. 
Peucker,  Vienna,  Lehmann  and  Petzold's  Atlas,  Leipzig, 
the  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine  and  other  publications 
for  much  data  included  in  the  maps  of  foreign  countries ; 
also,  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  use  of  valu- 
able illustrative  material. 

The  manuscript  and  proofs  of  the  book  have  been  criti- 
cally read  by  practical  and  experienced  teachers,  and  their 
suggestions  in  regard  to  logical  arrangement  and  methods 
of  presenting  the  subject  have  greatly  enhanced  the  peda- 
gogical value  of  the  volume  for  practical  use  in  the  class- 
room. 

Miss  Hedvige  de  Hutorowicz  has  prepared  the  index ; 
she  has  also  shared  with  the  author  from  the  first  the 
large  labor  of  collecting  and  collating  the  data  obtained 
for  the  book  from  many  countries  and  in  several  languages ; 
he  desires  to  express  his  appreciation  of  her  assistance. 


The  authorities  constantly  consulted  during  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  book  include  the  consular  reports,  statistical 
publicalions,  maps,  and  other  data  published  by  the  depart- 
ments and  bureaus  of  the  United  States  Government; 
similar  official  publications  of  other  leading  commercial 
nations ;  the  periodicals  of  many  of  the  geographical  so- 
cieties, and  particularly  those  of  the  American  Geograph- 
ical Society,  the  National  Geographic  Society,  the  Eoyal 
Geographical  Society,  the  Scottish  Geographical  Society, 
the  Imperial  Russian  Geographical  Society,  and  the  Societies 
of  Commercial  Geography  in  France  ;  Petermanns  Mit- 
teilungen ;  Annales  de  Geographic ;  and  Le  Mouvement 
Geographique.  Among  other  works  that  were  consulted 
or  read  were  :  Appletons'  Universal  Cyclopaedia  ;  the  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica;  Eeclus'  The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants; 
the  Statesman's  Year  Book ;  the  Almanach  de  Gotha ; 
Hiibner's  Geographisch-Statistische  Tabellcn;  Sievers' All- 


viii  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

gemeine  Landeskunde ;  the  Stieler  and  Andree  atlases ; 
Depew's  One  Hundred  Years  of  American  Commerce ; 
Keports  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York  City ; 
Cunningham's  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce 
in  Modern  Times ;  The  International  Geography ;  Keltic's 
Applied  Geography ;  Mills'  Elementary  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy and  Atlas  of  Commercial  Geography ;  Chisholm's 
Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography ;  Herbertson's  Com- 
mercial Geography  of  the  British  Isles ;  Lyde's  Commercial 
Geography  of  the  British  Empire ;  articles  in  the  Forum 
and  Xorth  American  Eeview  ;  Hann's  Klimatologie ;  Dorn's 
Die  Seehilf en  des  Weltverkehrs ;  Kerp's  Methodisches  Lehr- 
buch;  Geistbeck's  Der  Weltverkehr;  Hahn's  Die  Haus- 
tiere ;  Wohltmann's  Handbuch  der  tropischen  Agrikultur ; 
Schaufuss'  Die  hauptsachlichsten  Erzeugnisse  der  Erde  und 
ihrer  Bewohner  ;  Fitzner's  Deutsches  Kolonialhandbuch  ; 
Schmitz's  Die  Handelswege  und  Verkehrsmittel  der  Gegen- 
wart ;  Supan's  Grundziige  der  physischen  Erdkunde  ;  Liid- 
decke's  Deutscher  Schulatlas ;  Duffart's  Geographic  Com- 
merciale ;  Deville's  Manuel  de  Geographic  Commerciale ; 
and  Bourgoin  and  Foucart's  Geographic. 

Cyrus  C.  Adams. 

3Iay,  1901. 


-^TSFIORHALSCnGOi., 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAOE 

I. — The  bases  of  commercial  geography       ....        1 

II. — Natural  conditions  affecting  commerce        ...        4 
Climate. 

III. — Natural  conditions  affecting  commerce       ...      11 
The   influence  of  soils,  forms   of    the  earth's  surface,  and 
ocean  currents  and  winds. 

IV. — Natural  conditions  affecting  commerce        ,        .        .      22^ 
Influences   that  determine   the   position   of  town  sites  and 
harbors. 

V. — Human  control  of  commerce 27 

The  influences  of  races,  governments,  and  religions — Impedi- 
ments to  trade. 

VI. — Transportation 39 

The  use  of  wind,  steam,  animals,  conduits,  and  electricity  in 
carrying  commodities. 

VII. — The  United  States 49 

Climate — ^Natural  features — Distribution  of  leading  products. 

VIII. — The  United  States  (Continued) 57 

Vegetable  food  products,  beverages,  tobacco,  and  the  trade 
in  them. 

IX. — The  United  States  {Continued) 76 

Animal  food  products  and  the  trade  in  them ;  also  the  hoi-se, 
whales,  sponges,  and  furs. 

X. — The  United  States  {Continued) 93 

Vegetable  and  animal  fibers — Oils  from  the  seed   of  fiber 
plants. 


:  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XL — The  United  States  {Continued)       ....    107 

Wood  crops,  the  commodities  they  yield,  and  the  trade 
in  them. 

XII. — The  United  States  (Continued)        ....    116 
Coal,  petroleum,  iron  ore,  tin,  and  their  products. 

XIII. — The  United  States  {Continued)       ....    129 

Precious  metals,  other  metals  and  minerals,  and  the 
trade  in  them. 

XIV. — The  United  States  (Continued)        ....    139 

Distribution  of  manufactures — Conditions  that  favor 
manufacturing  development — Machinery,  leather,  boots 
and  shoes,  clothing,  glass,  etc. 

XV. — The  United  States  (Continued)        ....    149 

Freight  rates — Rivers — Eiver  'ports — The  Great  Lakes 
— The  "  Soo  "  Canal — Lake  ports — Canals — Railroads — 
Coasting  trade  —  Near-by  foreign  sea  trade  —  Deep-sea 
trade — Seaports. 

XVI. — The  United  States  (Continued)        .        .        .        .162 

General  facts  of  commerce — The  trade  of  this  country. 
XVII. — United  States  Colonies  and  Cuba  ....     168 

Porto  Rico — The  territory  of  Hawaii — Guam — Tutuila 
— The  Philippine  Islands — Cuba. 

XVIII. — Canada  and  Newfoundland 182 

XIX. — The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land           195 

XX.— Germany 214 

XXL— France 22^ 

XXIL— Belgium 242 

XXIII. — The  Netherlands 250 

XXIV.— Scandinavia  •    \.:       ^[:  .        .....  258 

XXV.— Switzerland        ..,.  ^  .......       .        .        .        .268" 

XXVI. — Austria-Hungary 277 

XXVIL— Italy 288 

XXVIIL— Spain  and  Portugal 298 

XXIX.— Russia  in  Europe 305^ 

XXX. — The  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Asiatic  Turkey        .  318 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXXI.— Mexico 328 

XXXII. — Central  America 336 

XXXIII. — Venezuela,  the  Guianas,  and  Brazil     .        .        .  343 

XXXIV. — Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Argentina,  and  Chile  ,        .  355 

XXXV. — Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia          .        .  370 

XXXVI.— The  West  Indies  and  Bermuda       .        .        .        .383 

XXXVII.— Russian  Asia 389 

XXXVIII.— India  and  Ceylon 396 

XXXIX.— Japan 406 

XL. — The  Chinese  Empire 414 

XLI. — Other  Countries  of  Asia 427 

Persia,  Maskat,  Afghanistan,  Straits  Settlements,  Siam, 
French  Indo-China,  Korea,  Dutch  East  Indies. 

XLII. — Australia 435 

XLIII.— New  Zealand 445 

XLIV,— Oceania 449 

XIjV.^Egypt  and  North  Africa 453 

XLVI. — Tropical  Africa 461 

XLVII. — Temperate  South  Africa 470 

Index 477 


STATE  nORMAL  SCHOOL, 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 
PAGE 


A  Pine  Forest  in  the  North       ....       Frontispiece 
Harvesting  Wheat  in  the  United  States          ....      60 
Threshing  Wheat  in  Russia 60 

Butter  Making 79 

The  Old  Way— The  New  Way. 

A  Cotton  Field  in  Texas 96 

Lumber  Industry 110 

Logging  in  the  North  Woods. 

Steel  Industry 126 

1.  Duquesne,  Pa. ;  2.  Munhall,  Pa. ;  3.  Bessemer,  Pa. 
Manufacturing  Industries 139 

Worsted  Mills,  Providence,  R.  I. 

The  Flber  Industry 176 

Cutting  Flax.     Harvesting  Hemp. 

Manufacturing  Industries 207 

Loom  Eoom,  Ponemah  Mills,  Taftville,  Conn. 

Irrigation  of  Sugar  Beets  218 

Fishing  on  the  Ural  River 317 

Mining  Industries 333 

Homestake  Gold  Mine,  Lead  City,  South  Dakota. 
Mining  Industries 375 

Hydraulic  Mining. 
Silk  Industry  in  Japan 408 

Taking  Silk  from  Cocoons. 
Meat-Packing  Industries 438 

Armour  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Combined  Harvester  and  Thresher 464 

xii 


LIST   OF   MAPS  AND   CHARTS 


1.  Commercial  regions  and  highways  of  the  world 

2.  Eflect  of  altitude  iu  distributing  vegetation 

3.  Annual  amount  of  rainfall 

4.  Chief  conditions  of  vegetation 

5.  Contrasted  areas  iu  France 

6.  Mineral  products 

7.  Mineral  products 

8.  Prevailing  winds 

9.  Comparative  size  of  large  cities 

10.  The  area  of  Vienna  and  its  uses 

11.  Paris  as  a  central  point  of  trade 

12.  Artiiicial  harbor  at  Algiers.     . 

13.  Fiords  of  Norway 

14.  Drowned  Valley  harbor,  California 

15.  Island  harbor,  Peru  . 

16.  Eiver  harbor,  China 

17.  Atoll  harbor      .... 

18.  Crater  harbors,  New  Zealand 

1 9.  Races  of  man     .... 

20.  Colonies 

21.  Predominating  religions  . 

22.  Density  of  population 

23.  Drainage  areas .... 

24.  Suez  Canal        .... 

25.  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal 
2»;.  Isthmus  of  Corinth  Canal 

27.  North  Holland  ship  canal 

28.  Projected  Nicaragua  and  Panaiiu 

29.  Distribution  of  domestic  animals 

30.  Rainfall  in  the  United  States 

31.  Density  of  population 

32.  Orographical  map  of  the  United  Sta 

33.  Section  across  the  United  States 

34.  World's  production  of  cereals . 

35.  Vegetable  products  . 

36.  Average  wheat  crop  of  tlie  world  for  live  years 


anal 


atei- 


XIV 


FIG 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


PAGE 

37.  Wheat  areas  of  the  United  States 60 

38.  Vegetable  products 62 

39.  Production  of  maize  by  countries 63 

40.  Production  of  oats  by  countries 64 

41.  Production  of  rye  by  countries 64 

42.  Production  of  barley  by  countries 64 

43.  Vegetable  products 66 

44.  Annual  production  of  beet  sugar  by  countries 67 

45.  Annual  production  of  cane  sugar  by  countries 67 

46.  Vegetable  products 70 

47.  Tobacco  in  the  United  States 72 

48.  Cattle  in  the  United  States 77 

49.  Swine  in  the  United  States 80 

50.  Fishing  banks  and  fisheries  (N.  E.  United  States  and  S.  E.  Canada)  .  84 

51.  Sea  fisheries  of  West  Europe 85 

52.  World's  production  of  cotton 93 

53.  Cotton  in  the  United  States 94 

54.  World's  production  of  wool 98 

55.  Kaw-silk  production  in  1899 102 

56.  Lumber  regions  of  the  UniteiLStatcs 109 

57.  Coal  fields  in  the  United  Stales 117 

58.  Annual  coal  production  by  countries 118 

59.  Petroleum  fields 120 

60.  Pennsylvania  oil  and  natural-gas  field 121 

61.  Pig-iron  production  by  countries 122 

62.  Lake  Superior  iron-ore  district 123 

63.  Iron-ore  shipping  routes 124 

64.  Birnungham  (Ala.)  iron  and  coal  mining  district         ....  125 

65.  Steel  j)roduction  by  countries 126 

66.  Tin  production  by  countries 127 

67.  Copper  production  by  countries 129 

68.  Gold  production  by  countries 131 

69.  United  States  gold  production  in  1898 131 

70.  Silver  production  by  countries        . 132 

71.  United  States  silver  production  in  1898 133 

72.  United  States  interior  navigation 150 

73.  The  "  Soo  "  and  Canadian  canals 152 

74.  Growth  of  the  world's  railroads 154 

75.  Growth  of  railroads  in  the  United  States 154 

76.  United  States  chief  railroads  and  time  zones 156 

77.  Porto  Rico 169 

78.  Hawaiian  Islands 171 

79.  The  Philippines 174 

80.  Cuba 178 

81.  British  America 183 

82.  Kailroads  and  ports  of  the  British  Isles 197 


LIST  OF   MAPS  AND  CHARTS 


XV 


FIG.  PAGE 

83.  Subdivision  of  the  soil  of  Great  Britain 199 

84.  Density  of  population  in  the  British  Isles 200 

85.  Leading  products  of  the  British  Isles 201 

86.  British  coalfields 206 

87i__ji>ttery  district  .^of  lire  at  Britain 207 

88.  Cotton  and  woolen  textiles  in  England OQg 

89.  Tilbury  docks 211 

90.  Germany 215 

91.  The  free  port  of  Hamburg 216 

92.  Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Germany 217 

93.  Southwestern  Germany 218 

94.  Coal  and  iron  district  of  Germany 220 

95.  Ehine-Westplialia  industrial  region 223 

96.  Kailroads  in  Germany 224 

97.  Industries  of  France 229 

98.  France — interior  navigation ■        _  231 

99.  Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  France 232 

100.  Agriculture  and  animal  rai.sing 233 

101.  Wine  and  fisheries  in  France 234 

102.  The  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  Lu.xemburg — agriculture          .        .  243 

103.  Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Belgium 244 

104.  The  Netherlands,  Belgium,  and  Lu.xemburg— industries  and  com- 

merce          253 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  the  Netherlands 256 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Sweden 259 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Norway 259 

Scandiaavia — agriculture  and  fisheries 260 

Scandinavia — mines,  industries,  and  commerce 263 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Denmark 264 

Switzerland — industries  and  agriculture 269 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Switzerland 270 

Switzerland's  railroad  connections 274 

114.  Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Austria-Hungary 278 

115.  Agriculture  in  Austria-Hungary 279 

Industries  and  mineral  products  of  Austria-Hungary         .        .        .  282 

Density  of  population  in  Austria-Hungary 283 

Eailroad  map  of  Austria-Hungary 284 

Italy — most  important  railroads  and  seaports 289 

Italy — agricultural  and  mineral  products,  and  fisheries      .        .        .  290 

Italy — density  of  population 291 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Italy _   .        .        .  292 

Industries  of  North  Italy 296 

Spain  and  Portugal 299 

Russia — climate 306 

Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Russia 307 

Russia — agriculture,  manufactures,  and  fisheries         ....  309 


xvi  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

FIO.  PAGE 

128.  Eussia — minerals,  navigable  rivers,  and  seaports         ....  311 

129.  Russia — chief  railroads 315 

130.  The  Balkan  States 319 

131.  Agriculture  in  Mexico 329 

132.  Railroads  in  Mexico 330 

133.  Mining  in  Mexico 333 

134.  Central  America 338 

135.  V'^enezuela  and  tlie  Guianas 344 

136.  Brazil 349 

137.  Chile,  Argentina,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay 359 

138.  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru 371 

139.  Bolivia 380 

140.  Agricultural  and  mining  regions  of  Siberia 391 

141.  Russian  Central  Asia 395 

142.  India— density  of  population 397 

143.  India — areas  of  wheat,  rice,  and  millet  culture 399 

144.  India — areas  of  tea,  cotfee,  cotton,  and  opium  culture          .        .        .  401 

145.  Japan — distribution  of  tea  and  raw-silk  culture 407 

146.  Japan — distribution  of  wax,  lacquer,  and  camplior  trees     .         .         .  410 

147.  Chief  products  of  China 416 

148.  China — railroads,  navigation,  and  treaty  ports 422 

149.  Hongkong  and  environs         .        .' 425 

150.  Australia-Parable  and  grazing- lancls 436 

151.  Australia — distributisn  of^mining'^     ..  „  ...       .     :  ;.        .        .        .  441 

152.  Railroads  in  Australia     :      '. 443 

153.  New  Zealand 446 

154.  Africa — railroads,  navigable  waters,  steamship  routes,  etc.      facing  453 

155.  Algeria  and  Tunis 457 

156.  Agriculture  in  Africa 462 

157.  The  Congo  river  and  its  navigal)le  tributaries 465 

158.  South  Africa 471 


STATE  nOKMAL  SCHOOL, 
boa  Attaabiu,  oMt, 


?^ 


/\. 


(jreenwich  00 


0  Longitude  30  East  00 


Facing  page  1, 


0 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER   I 

THE    BASES    OF    COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Man  works  to  supply  human  needs.  In  his  lowest  state 
of  culture  man  has  very  few  needs,  and  supplies  them  all 
from  the  region  where  he  lives.  The  dwarfs  of  Africa,  for 
example,  fashion  their  rude  lances  and  bows  and  arrows 
with  which  they  hunt,  build  only  the  simplest  huts  of 
boughs  and  grass  to  protect  them  from  the  rain,  and  wear 
no  clothing,  or  at  most  merely  the  skin  of  an  animal  or  a 
bit  of  grass  cloth.  But  as  man  advances  in  civilization  he 
requires  a  greater  variety  of  food,  better  shelter,  and  com- 
fortable clothing ;  and  in  his  highest  state  of  culture  his 
wants  are  very  numerous,  and  he  draws  not  only  upon 
his  immediate  surroundings,  but  upon  the  whole  world  to 
supply  them. 

The  materials  used  by  man  are  obtained  either  directly  or 
indirectly  from  the  soil  or  from  rock  and  mineral  substances. 
The  larger  part  of  them  are  derived  directly  from  the  soil, 
such  as  cereals  and  other  vegetable  food ;  trees,  bamboo, 
and  those  vegetable  products  which  supply  the  principal 
material  in  house  building ;  also  cotton  and  other  fibers 
from  which  cloth  is  made.  Many  necessaries  also  are  sup- 
plied by  land  and  sea  animals  whose  flesh,  fat,  skins,  bones, 
wool,  and  hair  are  utilized  by  man.  All  these  animal 
commodities  are  derived  indirectly  from  the  soil,  for  the 
reason  that  the  food  of  all  animals  is  vegetation  or  other 
1  1 


2  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

animals  that  eat  plan  ts.  Another  large  source  of  necessary 
commodities  is  rock  and  mineral  substances,  such  as  coal, 
iron,  and  the  precious  metals,  that  are  dug  from  the  earth. 

Natural  riches  are  very  unevenly  distributed.  Civilized 
man  must  go  far  for  many  of  the  things  he  needs.  There 
could  be  no  vegetable  life  without  the  heat  and  light 
that  come  from  the  sun.  As  heat  and  sunshine  are  un- 
equally distributed  over  the  earth,  they  produce  differences 
of  climate  and  consequently  many  varieties  of  vegeta- 
tion, as,  for  example,  the  wheat  of  the  temperate  zones  and 
the  cotton  and  rubber  plants  of  warmer  regions.  Some 
regions  also  are  far  poorer  in  useful  rocks  and  minerals 
than  others.  Thus  Holland  has  no  building  stone,  Switzer- 
land no  coal,  and  the  United  States  much  less  sulphur  than 
it  needs.  Each  country,  therefore,  must  sell  commodities 
in  which  it  is  rich  and  buy  commodities  in  which  it  is  poor. 

Commerce  is  the  exchange  of  commodities.  The  causes 
that  give  rise  to  commerce  are  (1)  the  differences  in  the 
productions  of  various  parts  of  the  world,  making  exchanges 
necessary,  and  (2)  the  division  of  labor  among  men.  Thus 
Argentina,  poor  in  iron  and  coal  but  rich  in  wheat  and 
cattle,  sells  grain,  meat,  and  hides  in  other  countries,  and 
buys  their  iron  manufactures  and  coal.  If  everybody 
should  produce  food,  and  make  coats  and  boots,  there 
could  be  no  commerce  in  these  commodities,  because  each 
woixld  supply  his  own  need ;  but  when  one  man  produces 
only  food,  another  coats,  and  another  boots,  the  necessity 
for  trade  arises.  So  the  difference  in  the  commodities  pro- 
duced by  different  regions,  and  the  division  of  labor  have 
compelled  man,  in  every  stage  of  culture,  to  engage  in 
trade.  The  Congo  fisherman  exchanges  his  dried  fish  and 
the  African  dwarf  his  fresh  meat  for  vegetable  food  sup- 
plied by  the  surrounding  tribes.  But  it  is  only  highly  civ- 
ilized nations  that  develop  world-wide  commerce. 

Commercial  geography  describes  the  world  in  its  rela- 
tions to  man  as-  a  producer  and   as  a  trader.      It  tells  of 


THE   BASES   OF   COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY  3 

the  geographic  and  other  conditions  that  help  or  hinder 
man  in  his  efforts  to  produce  commodities  or  to  buy  and 
sell  them.  Thus  the  slope  of  the  land  determines  the  di- 
rection of  the  rivers,  and  whether  they  may  be  utilized  to 
carry  commodities  to  market.  Mountain  ranges  hinder 
commerce  so  far  as  they  tend  to  keep  peoples  apart  and  in- 
crease the  cost  of  transportation.  Valleys  and  plains  are 
the  great  sources  of  food  for  man  and  his  domestic  animals. 
Mountain  regions  are  the  largest  sources  of  the  metals  and 
minerals  he  uses.  The  luxuriance  and  variety  of  vegetation 
decrease  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles,  and  from  sea 
level  toward  high  altitudes.  The  ocean  supplies  fish  and 
salt,  and  is  the  cheapest  highway  of  commerce.  All  these 
natural  conditions  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  needs  of 
the  merchant.  He  wishes  to  know  where  he  may  procure 
his  commodities  in  large  and  regular  supply  at  reasonable 
prices  and  at  low  cost  of  transportation.  Commercial 
geography  therefore  treats  of  the  many  influences  operating 
all  over  the  world  which  promote  or  retard  the  production, 
transportation,  or  exchange  of  the  commodities,  natural  or 
manufactured,  which  man  consumes  or  utilizes.  The  facts 
of  commercial  geography  prove  that  the  world  has  be- 
come a  vast  trading  community  through  the  discovery  and 
perfecting  of  rapid  and  cheap  communications ;  that  the 
invention  of  machinery  and  other  appliances  has  multiplied 
many  fold  the  capacity  for  production,  so  that  the  United 
States,  with  one  fifth  the  population  of  China,  has  a  greater 
productive  capacity  than  that  country ;  and  that  the  divi- 
sion of  labor  makes  experts  in  all  lines  of  production,  thus 
improving  the  quality,  increasing  the  quantity,  and  thereby 
decreasing  the  cost  of  commodities. 


TATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

MtAftOlbU.eJUi. 


CHAPTEE  II 

natural  conditions  affecting  commerce 

Climate 

Climate  is  the  largest  influence  in  determining  where 
animals  and  plants  may  thrive.  The  volume  of  trade  and 
the  directions  it  takes  are  greatly  influenced  by  climate. 
Large  commercial  relations  can  exist  only  between  large 
populations,  and  these  are  found  in  those  temperate  or 
tropical  regions  that  are  best  adapted  to  support  human 
life.  Man  can  not  thrive  in  the  rarefied  air  of  high  moun- 
tain regions,  in  the  severe  cold  and  long  darkness  of  the 
polar  zones,  or  in  the  parched  desert ;  consequently  such 
regions  have  small  population  and  little  commerce.  Men 
from  more  favored  lands  are  tempted  to  go  to  them  only  to 
secure  some  great  natural  resource,  such  as  the  right  whale 
of  the  Arctic,  the  gold  of  the  upper  Yukon,  or  the  nitrates 
in  the  desert  of  northern  Chile. 

Climate  influences  agriculture  more  than  soils  do.  Similar 
clinicites  have  similar  vegetation  the  world  over,  but  there 
is  a  wide  difference  between  the  products  of  similar  soils  in 
one  climate  and  in  another.  The  larger  part  of  the  Sahara 
and  nearly  all  of  the  Cobi  plateau  in  Asia  need  only  greater 
rainfall  to  fit  them  to  support  abundant  life.  Xorth  Can- 
ada, the  polar  lands,  and  Tibet,  the  loftiest  tableland  in  the 
world,  need  only  higher  temperature  to  make  them  teem 
with  vegetation  On  the  other  hand,  liigh  temperature 
and  excessive  rainfall  combine  to  produce  too  luxurious 
vegetation  in  the  forested  Amazon  basin  and  in  the  forest 
4 


NATURAL   CONDITIONS  AFFECTING   COMMERCE         5 

belt  of  equatorial  xlfrica,  rendering  them  comparatively 
unfit  for  agriculture  ;  while  the  hot  and  steaming  atmos- 
jihere  promotes  fevers  that  render  such  regions  almost  un- 
inhabitable. Malaria  is  usually  developed  in  hot,  marshy  dis- 
tricts. ^0  large  industries,  except  mining,  no  commerce, 
except  in  mineral  products,  can  thrive  where  climate  does 
not  permit  large  agriculture  or  animal  raising.  The  greater 
part  of  Australia  would  never  have  any  importance  in  the 
world's  trade  if  it  were  not  for  irrigation  and  the  gold  and 
other  metals  and  minerals  found  in  its  rocks. 

Temperature  is  one  of  the  two  most  important  climatic 
elements.  Temperature  depends  chietly  (1)  upon  distance 
from  the  equator — in  other  words,  geographical  latitude — 
and  (2)  upon  elevation  above  sea  level.  The  effect  of  lati- 
tude upon  temperature  and  consequently  upon  life  will  first 
be  considered. 

Typical  tropical  regions  have  the  greatest  luxuriance  of 
plant  and  animal  life.  This  is  due  to  the  excessive  heat 
and  moistvire  of  these  regions.  Trees  and  many  lesser 
plants  are  giants  in  stature.  The  largest  of  wild  beasts  roam 
through  the  forests  or  jungles.  Staple  foods,  such  as  the 
banana  and  cocoanut,  grow  wild,  and  little  shelter  or  cloth- 
ing is  required ;  man's  wants  are  few ;  his  mind  and  body 
are  not  stimulated  by  the  need  of  a  struggle  for  existence, 
and  he  has  little  ambition  or  energy.  Many  tropical  coun- 
tries, therefore,  could  have  little  part  in  commerce  if  they 
did  not  produce  fruits,  food  stuffs,  and  raw  materials  for 
manufactures  that  are  largely  demanded  in  other  lands. 

The  polar  regions  are  poor  in  plant  and  animal  life. 
They  present  the  other  extreme  of  climate.  The  Antarctic 
is  not  tenanted  by  man.  The  arctic  Eskimos  require 
abundant  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  but  the  materials  for 
providing  them  are  scanty.  Most  of  the  land  is  buried  un- 
der snow  and  ice,  and  for  half  the  year  the  gloomy  land- 
scape is  not  cheered  by  a  ray  of  sunlight.  The  natives  are 
clad  in  skins  of  animals  which  they  kill  for   food  with 


6 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


weapons  fashioned  from  bones  and   walrus  ivory.     Their    I 
huts  are  made  of  snow,  ice,  stones,  and  skins.     The  struggle 
for  a  bare  existence  is  intense,  and  man  is  content  if  the 
severest  exertion  will  provide  him  with  sufficient  food  and  ^ 
warmth.     His  grim  environment  schools  him  in  hardihood, 
patience,  and  stolid  endurance ;  but  only  in  south  Green- 
laud  does  he  gain  a  little  store  of  oil  and  eider  down  to  ex- 
change for  foreign  commodities.  i 
The  temperate  zones  afford  the  golden  mean  of  climate.    ' 
They  lie   between   the   climatic    extremes.      Man    thrives 
best  in  the  temperate  zones  because  genial  conditions  of 
life  abound  there,  imparting  physical  energy  and  vigor  of 
mind.     Hard  work  with  hand  and  brain  brings  out  the  best 
that  is  in  the  human  race  and  lifts  it  to  the  highest  plane 
of   development.      Industry   and   invention   multiply   the 
comforts  of  life,  so  that  man  produces  a  far  greater  variety 
of  desirable  things,  and  buys  and  sells  many  more  kinds  of 
commodities  than  the  people  of  the  other  zones.     Thus  it    ] 
happens  that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  world's  commerce    | 

is   between   the   busy  farmers,    ! 
manufacturers,   and    other   la-    i 
borers  who  inhabit  the  coasts    ! 
and  fertile  plains  and  valleys 
of  the  temperate  regions.  ! 

Temperature    decreases    ver-    j 
tically  1     Fahr.  for   every  300    I 
feet  of  elevation  above  the  sea    j 
(Fig.  2).     Temperate  or  frigid     ' 
climates  are  therefore  found  in 
the  higher  parts  of  the  trop- 
ical zone.    In  Ecuador  the  low- 
lands  yield  rubber   and   other    j 
tropical  products,  the  Andean    j 
uplands  produce  wheat,  and  the  summits  above  them  are    i 
capped  with  snow.     The  equator  crosses  both  the  Congo    j 
and  Amazon  basins,  but  most  of  the  Congo  system  is  much    j 


18,300  ft. 


Fig.  2.— Showing  "the  effect  of  al- 
titude in  distributing  vegetation 
from  ttie  tropical  sea  level  to  the 
frigid  summit  of  Mt.  Kenia.  un- 
der the  equator  in  East  Africa. 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  COMMERCE        7 

liigher  above  the  sea.  This  is  one  reason  why  the  Congo 
lias  a  larger  population  and  a  more  rapid  development  of 
commerce. 

Rainfall  is  the  second  most  important  climatic  element. 
The  sea  is  by  far  the  largest  source  of  rain.  The  amount 
of  rain  on  the  land  (Fig.  3)  varies  with  the  distance  from 
the  sea,  so  that  the  rainfall  of  the  far  inner  parts  of  the 
continents  is  much  less  than  near  most  coasts.  It  also  va- 
ries with  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds ;  so  that, 
for  example,  the  Sahara  and  southwest  Africa  are  deserts 
because  the  prevailing  winds  blow  toward  the  sea  instead 
of  from  it,  and  consequently  are  always  dry ;  while  the 
Amazon  valley  is  drenched  because  the  northeast  trade 
winds  incessantly  pour  over  it  the  water  brought  from  the 
sea. 

Winds  are  transporters  of  climate.  Tliey  carry  heat  from 
the  tropics  to  the  cooler  regions,  and  the  icy  temperature 
of  the  polar  areas  to  the  warmer  latitudes ;  they  also  dis- 
tribute rainfall  over  land  and  sea.  Thus  they  have  an  im- 
portant influence  in  fixing  the  abodes  of  man  and  the  re- 
gions of  his  commercial  activity. 

The  sea  climate  is  more  equable  and  mild  than  the  con- 
tinental climate.  This  is  so  because  the  air  over  the  land 
becomes  much  hotter  or  colder  than  the  air  over  the  open 
sea.  Thus  land  near  the  ocean  has  a  more  equable  climate 
than  land  in  the  interior ;  but  the  continental  climate  may 
be  extended  to  the  coasts  as  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of 
the  United  States,  if  winds  from  the  interior  sweeji  unim- 
peded to  the  ocean.  The  heat  conserved  by  the  ocean 
tempers  the  air  currents  moving  over  it ;  and  as  the  pre- 
vailing winds  over  the  north  Atlantic  move  eastward  across 
the  ocean  they  distribute  over  northwestern  Europe  the 
moderate  temperature  they  have  derived  from  tlie  Atlan- 
tic ;  so  that  barley  thrives  far  north  in  Norway  and  its 
ports  are  open  the  year  round,  while  Labrador,  though 
much  farther  south,  is  bleak  and  barren  most  of  the  year 


"VDVf  \ 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING   COMMERCE        9 

because  the  prevailing  winds  come  from  the  arctic  interior 
of  northern  Canada  instead  of  from  the  sea.  Ocean  cur- 
rents, such  as  the  warm  Gulf  Stream  and  the  cold  Labrador 
current,  contrary  to  earlier  opinion,  are  now  believed  to 
have  little  influence  upon  the  temperature  of  the  land. 


3«S 


'"Si 


CHAPTEE   III 


natural.  conditions  affecting  commerce 

The  Ixfluence  of  Soils,  Forms  of  the  Eaeth's  Sue- 
face,  AND  Ocean  Currents  and  Winds 

Good  soils  are  required  to  produce  luxuriant  plant  life. 
Vegetation  needs  not  only  the  carbonic  acid  it  draws 
from  the  air,  bnt  also  certain  mineral  snhstances  in  the  soil 
which  are  plant  food  and  are  taken  into  the  plant  for  its 
nourishment  by  the  water  that  ascends  from  the  roots. 
Soils  are  composed  of  particles  worn  away  from  the  masses 
of  rock  and  mixed  with  plant  and  animal  remains.  A 
poor    soil    contains 


Origny-Ie-Se^ 
Aube       ^ 


-SCALE   1:300,000 


little  of  these  food 
substances  and  so 
yields  little  vegeta- 
tion ;  or  it  may  be 
rich  in  food  sub- 
stances but  is  of 
such  a  nature  as  to 
prevent  water  from 
doing  its  part  as 
a  carrier  of  plant 
food.  A  Very  sandy 
soils,  derived  from 
crystalline  rocks, 
such  as  granite,  do 
not  retain  much  moisture  and  are  therefore  unsuitable  for 
thriving  plant  growth.     Clay  soils,  derived  from  feldspar 

11 


Fig.  5.— Contrasted  areas  in  Fuance. 
In  one  of  these  districts  tlie  houses  nntl  hamlets  are 
widely  dispersed,  for  all  may  easily  obtain  water, 
as  an  impermeable  roek  stratum  beneath  them 
keeps  most  of  the  water  near  the  surface.  In  the 
other  district  the  water,  sinking  deep  thronjrh  per- 
meable rocks,  is  hard  to  ^'(^t,  aTid  the  poi>iilation  is 
trroiiped  around  deep  wells. 


a     -  ^  -3 


14  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

and  some  other  minerals,  are  so  heavr  as  to  interfere  with 
the  circulation  of  water  and  air,  and  so  are  not  favorable 
for  agricnlture.  When  sand  and  clay  are  mixed  with  an 
important  quantity  of  plant  and  animal  remains  a  loamy 
soil  results,  and  this  is  best  adapted  for  general  agrictdture 
(Fig.  4).  Eocks  and  minerals  also  influence  human  life 
in  various  other  ways.  Their  nature  often  determines  the 
location  of  houses  and  towns  (Fig.  5).  The  growth  of  Lon- 
don toward  the  north  was  retarded  until  water  was  con- 
veyed thither  in  pipes,  because  the  underlying  rocks  do  not 
retain  the  rainfall.  Over  the  great  plains  of  Eussia,  Hun- 
gary, South  America,  and  in  Holland  no  building  stones 
are  found,  and  these  countries  are  thus  deprived  of  a  large 
source  of  wealth.  Villages  may  be  thickly  sprinkled  over 
some  particular  geological  formation,  as  on  the  upper  green- 
sand  in  England,  noted  for  its  fertility,  or  along  an  outcrop 
of  the  cx)al  measures.  The  distribution  of  minerals  over 
the  earth  has  an  important  influence  in  the  distribution  of 
the  human  race,  attracting  a  large  population  to  mountain 
districts  which  would  be  almost  uninhabited  if  it  were  not 
for  the  metals  found  in  them  (Figs.  6  and  7).  Xot  only 
the  nature  of  rocks,  minerals,  and  soils,  but  also  the  forms 
of  the  land  have  grea^  influence. 

All  forms  of  the  earths  surfsice  promote  or  hinder  trade. 
These  topographical  feature?,  the  slope  of  the  surface, 
highlands,  lowlands,  rivers,  and  the  character  of  coasts 
have  a  marked  effect  upon  the  accessibility  of  regions,  the 
occupations  of  men,  and  the  density  of  population.  Behind 
Amoy,  Fuchau,  and  aU  other  ports  in  southeast  China,  for 
example,  are  parallel  mountain  ranges  that  are  not  easy  to 
cross.  The  importance  of  all  these  ports  is  diminished  by 
the  fact  that  these  impediments  prevent  easy  communica- 
tions with  the  distant  interior  where  millions  of  buyers  and 
sellers  live.  Thus  mountains  may  obstruct  commerce. 
Let  us  see  how  the  forms  of  the  land  may  affect  human 
occupations  in  various  ways. 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING   COMMERCE      15 

The  slope  of  the  land  influences  production.  The  sun's 
light  and  heat  have  most  power  within  the  tropics  because 
there  the  solar  rays  fall  nearly  or  quite  vertically  upon  the 
earth  ;  and  they  become  less  and  less  powerful  the  greater 
the  distance  from  the  equator,  for  they  fall  upon  the  earth 
more  and  more  slantingly ;  but  in  any  latitude  where  the 
land  presents  a  sloping  surface  to  the  son  it  receives  the 
solar  rays  in  a  more  vertical  direction,  and  consequentlv 
has  more  warmth  than  surrounding  surfaces  that  are  flat 
or  slope  away  from  the  sun.  This  is  why  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  farms  and  hamlets  cling  to  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  lower  Himalayas,  while  the  northern  slopes  are  al- 
most uninhabited ;  for  the  same  reason  the  apple  orchards 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  planted  preferably  on 
the  southern  slopes.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  also  the 
vineyards  of  Cape  Colony  and  the  peach  orchards  of  Xew 
Zealand  are  planted  on  the  northern  slopes.  Though  lati- 
tudes far  from  the  tropics  have  less  intensity  of  solar  heat, 
the  days  of  the  summer  or  growing  season  increase  in  length 
with  distance  from  the  equator,  till  at  the  poles  there  is  con- 
tinuous sunlight  for  six  months.  Hence  in  high  latitudes 
deficient  intensity  of  solar  heat  in  the  growing  season  is 
partly  repaired  by  longer  duration  of  sunlight ;  maize,  which 
requires  much  warmth,  may  be  ripened  in  southern  Canada. 

Mountain  ranges  have  great  influence  upon  cliniate.  po- 
litical geography,  and  commerce.  Many  of  them  form  cli- 
matic boundaries.  The  Cordilleras  of  western  America  and 
the  Scandinavian  mountains  arrest  the  warm,  moist  western 
winds  which  rise  along  those  great  rock  barriers  to  cooler 
altitudes,  where  their  water  vapor  is  condensed  and  falls  as 
rain,  so  that  the  country  on  the  windward  side  of  the 
mountains  is  wet  and  that  on  the  leeward  side  is  dry. 
Mountain  chains  stretching  east  and  west  across  central 
Asia  protect  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  from  frigid 
arctic  winds.  The  large  winter  tourist  traffic  of  the  Ri- 
viera is  due  to  the  mountains  that    shield   this    favored 


IQ  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

French-Italian  coast  from  the  north  and  northeast  con- 
tinental winds,  giving  it  a  considerably  warmer  winter's 
temperatnre  than  that  of  Rome,  two  and  a  half  degrees 
farther  south.  As  Xorth  America  has  no  mountain  barriers 
across  the  pathway  of  polar  winds  they  sweep  southward 
even  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  have  twice  destroyed 
Florida's  orange  groves  within  a  decade.  Mountain  ranges 
are  conspicuous  in  political  geography  because  they  are  the 
natural  boundary  between  many  nations  and  languages,  as 
the  Pyrenees  between  France  and  Spain,  the  Alps  between 
Austria  and  Italy,  and  the  Himalayas  between  Tibet  and 
India.  Mountains  sometimes  guard  nations  from  attack  by 
the  isolation  they  give  and  therefore  promote  national 
unity.  Thus  the  Swiss  are  among  the  few  peoples  in  Europe 
who  have  maintained  the  integrity  of  their  state.  Com- 
mercially, mountains  are  of  great  importance  as  a  source 
^f  water,  which  they  store  in  snow,  glaciers,  and  lakes. 
Snow  and  ice,  melting  slowly  on  the  mountains,  are  an  un- 
failing source  of  supply  for  perennial  rivers  and  thus  pro- 
mote navigation.  Mountains  are  the  largest  source  of  water 
power,  which  is  more  valuable  than  ever  now  that  electricity 
is  employed  to  transmit  it  to  convenient  centers  for  use  in 
the  industries.  A  large  part  of  the  mining  machinery  in 
the  United  States  is  run  by  water  power.  Switzerland, 
which  has  no  coal,  turns  the  wheels  of  its  mills  with  water. 
Mountains  supply  most  of  the  metals  and  minerals,  and  are 
therefore  the  scene  of  the  largest  mining  industry.  They 
are  also  among  the  greatest  sources  of  forest  wealth. 
Though  the  slopes  are  not  favorable  for  agriculture  they 
afford  good  pasturage,  and  the  debris  of  the  rocks  washed 
into  the  valleys  and  plains  by  mountain  torrents  supplies 
good  soil.  Thus  the  Appalachians  have  been  worn  dou-n 
to  a  comparatively  low  level,  and  the  soil  formed  from  tlu-ir 
rock  particles  is  the  basis  of  large  husbandry.  The  scenic 
attractions  of  many  mountain  regions  is  a  source  of  large 
revenue.     The  Alps  attract  crowds  of  tourists  who  spend 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  COMMERCE      17 

a])out  $20,000,000  a  year  in  Switzerland  and  Austria,  and 
give  employment  to  many  thousands  of  persons. 

Rivers  provide  cheap  transportation  and  rich  soiL  Farms, 
towns,  an(i  factories  may  be  pushed  inland  nowhere  so 
easily  as  along  rivers  that  supply  navigation.  Their  valleys 
may  be  more  easily  developed  than  other  regions  because 
water  freightage  is  less  expensive  than  any  other  form  of 
land  transportation,  and  thus  communications  with  markets 
and  the  sea  are  easily  maintained  ;  also  because  the  valleys, 
enriched  by  the  alluvium  which  the  rivers,  at  flood,  spread 
over  them,  supply  abundant  food.  Thus  rivers  are  the 
lines  of  least  resistance  to  the  advance  of  man ;  and  their 
valleys  are  settled  first  when  man  begins  to  carry  his  indus- 
tries and  commerce  inland  from  the  sea.  As  civilization 
developed  first  along  the  great  rivers,  the  Nile  of  Egypt, 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  of  Mesopotamia,  the  Ganges  and 
Indus  of  India,  and  the  Iloang  and  Yangtse  of  China  were 
the  creators  of  history.  Rivers  are  the  transporters  of 
fertilizing  alluvium  from  the  highlands  and  mountains 
where  they  rise  to  the  lowlands  through  which  they  flow. 
Thus  a  large  part  of  Holland  is  the  gift  of  the  Alpine  re- 
gions transported  by  the  Ehine.  The  Saskatchewan  of 
Canada  is  heavily  charged  with  alluvium  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  the  widest  zone  of  arable  lands  on  the  Ca- 
nadian plains  is  in  its  basin.  The  estuaries  of  rivers,  as 
those  of  the  Delaware  in  the  United  States,  the  Thames 
and  Clyde  in  Great  Britain,  the  Elbe  in  Germany,  and  the 
Gironde  in  France,  enable  sea  vessels  to  penetrate  far  into 
the  land,  and  their  great  importance  is  shown  by  the  large 
commercial  and  manufacturing  cities  on  their  banks. 

Plains  and  valleys  facilitate  transportation  and  stimulate 
manufactures.  If  they  are  fertile  the  tendency  is  to  popu- 
late them  densely  because  agriculture  thrives,  and  also  be- 
cause, transportation  being  least  difficult,  they  offer  special 
facilities  for  the  development  of  factory  industries  which 
need  to  bring  in  raw  materials  and  to  send  out  manufac- 


18  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

tured  products  at  small  cost  for  carriage.  Their  advantages 
are  enhanced  if  they  are  near  the  sea,  so  that  the  great 
ocean  highway  of  commerce  may  easily  be  utilized ;  and 
also  if  they  are  near  large  supplies  of  coal,  which  is  the 
greatest  source  of  power  in  the  manufacturing  industries. 
Thus  the  densest  populations  are  found  on  fertile  plains, 
particularly  along  the  seacoasts,  but  also  as  far  inland  as 
the  prairies  of  Illinois  and  Minnesota ;  or  in  fertile  valleys, 
as  along  the  Nile  or  in  the  Yangtse  basin ;  and  in  these 
areas  of  largest  population  are  many  centers  of  special 
density  where  Xature  has  placed  coal,  or  where  the  most 
convenient,  accessible,  and  excellent  sites  for  cities  and 
harbors  are  found.  There  are  also  wide  plains,  far  inland, 
which  do  not  have  sufficient  rainfall  to  nurture  the  growth 
of  forests  or  cultivated  crops.  Grass  takes  the  place  of 
the  larger  vegetable  growths.  These  grass  areas  are  called 
by  different  names.  They  are  steppes  in  Euro-Asia,  where 
they  extend  from  Mongolia  through  southern  Eussia  into 
Hungary  ;  the  great  plains  in  Xorth  America,  where  they 
stretch  from  the  middle  of  the  Dakotas  and  Texas  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  phiteau ;  downs  in  Australia,  pampas  in 
the  Argentine  Republic,  llanos  in  Venezuela,  and  savannas 
in  other  tropical  regions.  These  plains  develop  the  jias- 
toral  life,  and  a  dense  population  is  never  found  in  regions 
where  grazing  is  the  chief  pursuit. 

The  isolation  of  islands  sometimes  promotes  commerce. 
Thus  the  insularity  of  Great  Britain  saved  that  country 
from  the  ravages,  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  that  devas- 
tated half  of  Eurojie.  Before  that  time  Flanders  and  Ger- 
many had  surpassed  Great  Britain  in  many  lines  of  trade 
and  manufactures  ;  but,  thereafter,  she  had  nothing  to  fear 
from  continental  competition.  The  insularity  of  the  Jap- 
anese, also,  has  promoted  the  peculiar  and  advanced  civili- 
zation that  is  develojied  among  them. 

Coasts  help  commerce  if  they  afford  protection  from  heavy 
waves.     This  is  the  case  along  a  great  part  of  the  broken 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  COMMERCE      19 

shore  line  of  Europe,  where  there  are  many  harbors.  The 
vast  development  of  the  European  sea  trade  is  partly  due 
to  these  coastal  indentations,  many  of  which  extend  far 
into  the  land.  The  broken  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  provides  numerous  harbors,  and  is  far  more  favor- 
able to  commerce  than  its  high  and  rocky  Pacific  coast, 
exposed  to  the  full  fury  of  gales,  with  only  a  few  places  of 
shelter.  Population  is  less  dense  on  coasts  with  few  har- 
bors because  commerce  is  thus  restricted,  as  on  the  south 
coast  of  Sicily,  where  the  waves  beat  against  an  almost  un- 
broken wall  of  rock,  and  most  of  the  islanders  therefore 
settle  nearer  the  other  coasts  where  there  are  opportunities 
for  maritime  enterprise.  Such  high,  unbroken  coasts  ex- 
posed to  storms  are  a  danger  to  navigation.  Low,  sandy 
coasts  rising  from  shallow  seas  are  also  a  danger,  as  on  the 
west  and  north  sides  of  the  Gulf  of  Pe»-chili,  where  the 
Chinese  engage  almost  exclusively  in  agriculture  and  inland 
trading  because  their  coast  is  unfavorable  for  sea  trade. 

Ocean  currents  and  winds  help  or  retard  navigation.  As 
ocean  currents  (Fig.  7)  are  caused  largely  by  the  prevailing 
winds  they  have  about  the  same  course  over  the  sea.  A  vessel 
sailing  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  Philippines,  for 
example,  is  steered  into  the  equatorial  current  flowing 
west  and  may  gain  forty  miles  a  day,  while  it  might  lose 
thirty  miles  a  day  if  it  were  sailed  in  the  eastward  flowing 
equatorial  counter  current.  Winds  (Fig.  8)  affect  the 
speed  even  of  modern  steamships,  and  the  routes  of  sailing 
vessels  are  shaped  by  them.  A  clipper  ship  from  England 
for  Australia,  for  example,  skirts  the  coast  waters  of  Europe 
and  Africa  to  the  northeast  trades,  sails  before  this  wind  to 
South  America,  and  follows  its  shores  southward  out  of 
reach  of  the  southeast  trades  to  the  westerly  winds,  which 
carry  her  due  east  to  Australia.  On  the  homeward  voyage 
these  same  westerly  winds  carry  her  east  past  Cape  Horn 
and  to  Africa,  where  she  strikes  the  southeast  trades  that 
take  her  over  to  the  American  coast,  where  she  travels  in- 


20 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


shore  to  avoid  the  northeast  trades  till  she  meets  the  anti- 
trades or  westerly  winds  that  helj)  her  home.  Sailing  vessels 
with  ample  sea  room  make  good  but  retarded  progress  by 
tacking  against  the  wind.     The  tropical  whirlwinds,  called 


Fig.  8. — The  prevailing  winds  that  most  influence  navigation  are  :  (1)  The  northeast 
and  fioiitheast  trade  winds,  blowing  steadily  the  year  round,  but  shifting  their 
position  to  some  extent  ;  (2)  the  dry  north  monsoon  which,  in  winter,  blows  from 
the  south  Asian  lands  over  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  south  China  Sea ;  and  the 
moist  south  monsoon  which  in  summer  blows  from  these  seas  over  the  lands  ;  (3) 
the  anti-trade  or  westerly  winds  between  the  fortieth  and  fiftieth  parallels  in  both 
hemispheres.  The  westerly  winds  of  the  southern  hemisphere  (the  Roaring  For- 
ties of  the  sailor),  unimpeded  by  land,  make  the  royal  road  of  sailing  ships  from 
Australia  east  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

typhoons  in  the  monsoon  regions  and  cyclones  elsewhere, 
sometimes  do  much  damage  to  shipping  and  ports ;  and  the 
great  waves  raised  by  high  winds  iu  the  shallower  coast 
waters  are  also  among  the  dangers  of  navigation. 


ST.PETEKSBURG 
1  Mill, 


Fig.    9. — COMI'AIIATIVE    SIZK    OK   LARGE   CITIES. 

indoii,  Puris,  Borliii.  ami  Vieiiiiii  h!iv(!  each  sprwid  out,  aloni;  market  bi<;li\v!iys  (or 
miles  beyond  th(!  main  body  of  tlic  city.  The  KnL.'lisli  dr.iw  ii  line  around  llieimler 
limits  of  these  narrow  extensions  of  London  and  call  the  ciicuniscribed  area  "  (Ircat- 
er  London."  whiidi  has  a  ponnlation  of  over  (;.i«)ii.(M)0.  or  -J.OilO.lHlo  more  than  Lon- 
don county.  Th(!  comparatively  small  area  and  larf;e  jjopulation  of  CoMslMiilinople 
and  Tokio  illustrate  tlie  wretched  overcrowding  of  Eastern  cities.  I'<l<iTi  li.as  the 
least  irregularity  of  outliiu-.  and  the  fact  that  it  n-mains  cramped  wilhin  the  recli- 
linear  citv  walls  is  evidence  of  stagnation  of  business  and  lack  of  cnti'rorise. 


CHAPTER  IV 


natural  conditions  affecting  commerce 

Influences  that   determine  the   Position  of   Town 
Sites  and  Harbors 

Towns  and  cities  are  centers  for  the  manufacture,  storage, 
and  sale  of  commodities  (Figs.  9  and  10).  Any  situation 
offering  special  advantages  as  a  place  where  business  men 
may  conveniently  meet   or  commodities   may  be  cheaply 

manufactured  or  easily  ex- 
changed is  likely  to  be  occu- 
pied by  a  town  or  city.  These 
settlements  attract  most  of 
the  mills  and  workshops,  for 
labor  is  abundant  there,  and 
the  railroads  and  other  trade 
routes  which  converge  upon 
the  larger  centers  of  popula- 
tion give  them  superior  facili- 
ties for  securing  raw  material 
and  shijjping  products. '  Many 
small  towns  are  scattered  ev- 
erywhere in  well-populated  re- 
gions because  it  is  convenient 
to  have  small  trading  facilities 
near  at  hand,  but  the  largest  commerce  is  confined  to  large 
cities.  They  also  promote  civilization,  for  large  sums  of 
money  are  used  to  establish  public  librai'ies  in  them  and 
to  foster  art  and  science. 


Fig.  10.— Showing,  in  percentages,  the 
uses  to  which  the  area  within  the 
city  limits  of  Vienna  are  devoted. 
Most  cities  have,  for  future  growth, 
large  areas  still  unoccupied  by  build- 
ings or  streets. 


NATURAL   CONDITIONS   AFFECTING   COMMERCE      23 


Cities  are  built  at  places  that  are  most  accessible  and  near 
to  sources  of  natural  wealth.  Thus  the  j)lace  wliere  trade 
routes  meet  or  toward  which  they  converge  is  a  conveuient 
center  for  business  and  a  town  or  city  rises  there.  It  was 
this  consideration  that  fixed  the 
position  of  Paris  (Fig.  11).  Vienna 
is  also  the  meeting  point  of  great 
trade  routes  that  follow  the  valleys 
from  the  plain  of  Silesia,  far  to  the 
northeast,  from  the  highlands  of 
Bohemia  to  the  northwest  and  from 
the  wheat  lands  of  Hungary  to  the 
southeast.  The  situation  of  Vien- 
na is  thus  a  natural  trading  point, 
and  so  a  city  developed  there. 

Towns  or  cities  rise  at  the 
mouths  of  navigable  rivers  where 
goods  are  transshipped  between 
the  sea  and  land  routes,  as  at  Nor- 
folk, Havre,  and  Danzig.  The  cost 
of  transportation  in  ocean  vessels 
being  less  than  the  cost  by  land 
routes,   many   large    seaports    are 

placed  as  far  inland  as  possible  at  the  head  of  estuaries  or 
on  deep  rivers,  as  Baltimore,  108  miles,  and  Philadelphia, 
120  miles  from  the  sea. 

Such  cities  as  Pittsburg,  St.  Louis,  Lyons,  and  Hankow 
become  very  important  primarily  because  they  stand  at 
the  confluence  of  navigable  rivers,  making  it  easy  to  dis- 
tribute or  to  collect  freight  over  a  wide  area.  Cities  were 
certain  to  rise  at  Albany  and  Troy,  Bangor,  St.  Paul,  and 
Duluth  because  they  are  at  the  head  of  navigation,  where 
freight  must  be  transferred  between  water  and  land  routes. 
Men  must  live  at  such  places  to  handle  the  freight.  Farrp- 
ers  bring  their  produce  for  shipment  by  water.  Dwellings, 
eating  houses,  blacksmith  shops  and  stores  are  required. 


Fig.  11. — River  valleys  converg- 
ing on  Paris  marked  it  as 
a  central  point  of  trade,  for 
merchandise  could  be  distrib- 
uted in  all  directions  from 
Paris  by  boats ;  and  boats 
brought  commodities  from 
the  surrounding  country  to 
the  central  market. 


2-1: 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  a  town  is  sure  to  rise.  Towns  or  cities  are  founded  at 
great  river  bends,  because  much  of  the  river  freight  is  not 
destined  for  points  in  the  new  direction  which  the  river 
takes,  but  must  be  transshipped ;  and  this  need  gave  their 
start  to  Cincinnati  on  the  Ohio,  Kazan  on  the  Volga,  and 
Timbuktu  on  the  Niger. 

Waterfalls  and  rapids  have  given  rise  to  many  manu- 
facturing towns,  as  Minneapolis  and  Lowell,  because  the 
powej|.they  supply  is  used  to  run  the  mills.  Many  cities 
owe  fteir  greatness  to  their  central  position  in  exceedingly 
productive  regions,  as  Chicago,  which  has  the  further  great 
advantage  of  being  one  of  the  Western  termini  of  the  lake 
and  canal  routes  to  the  Atlantic  ;  and  Indianapolis,  Avhich 
is  a  collecting  and  distributing  point  in  the  center  of  the 
corn  belt.  Moscow  and  Berlin  are  also  in  the  center  of 
great  plains  where  trade  routes  con- 
verge ;  and  their  central  position  also 
gave  them  political  importance,  for  they 
were  made  the  capitals  of  large  coun- 
tries. 

Towns  are  built  wherever  there  are 
flourishing  mines,  as  at  Scranton,  noted 
for  anthracite,  Leadville  for  silver,  Kim- 
berley  for  diamonds,  and  Johannesburg 
for  gold ;  and  manufacturing  towns 
spring  up  near  coal  mines,  because  coal 
is  very  important  as  a  source  of  steam 
power  for  driving  machinery. 

Good  harbors  are  necessary  for  the  de- 
velopment of  large  sea  trade.  Sea-going 
and  lake  vessels  require  sheltered  places 
near  the  shore,  where  they  may  load  or 
unload  their  cargoes  in  calm  water  or 
ride  safely  at  anchor  in  severe  storms.  All  the  largest 
cities  are  ports  built  at  these  harbors.  Most  natural  har- 
bors are  not  adequate,  without  costly  improvements,  for 


ARTIFICIAL  II AKliOK 

ALGIERS 

SCALE  1:1,500,000 


Fig.  13. — French  enter- 
prise has  given  Al- 
giers, which  had  only 
anchorage  ground,  a 
fine  harbor  by  means 
of  long  breakwaters 
inclosing  a  large  area 
of  deep  water. 


NATURAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  COMMERCE   ,  25 

extensive  commerce  and  large  ships.  The  largest  vessels 
require  a  depth  of  25  to  35  feet  of  water,  and  many  great 
ports,  as  Liverpool,  Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  Marseilles,  were 
fitted  for  their  use  only  by  deepening  and  widening  the 
channels  at  enormous  expense ;  and  because  Nature  tends 
to  destroy  harbors  by  filling  them  with  sediment  or  rearing 
sand  bars  across  the  entrances,  the  work  of  preserving  and 
improving  harbors  is  continually  in  progress. 

The  little  ditch  of  the  Clyde,  turned  into  a  highway  for 
great  ships  to  Glasgow,  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  artifi- 
cial harbors  (Fig.  12).  The  United  States  coast  line  affords 
many  examples  of  the  most  important  harbor  types.  Thus 
many  fiord  harbors  (Fig.  13)  are  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 
Kew   York  and  Delaware  Bays  are  examples  of  drowned 


^  FIORT>  HARBOR 


Fi«.  13.— The  fiords  of  Norway  afford  many 
sheltered  harbors  for  the  fishermen.  One 
of  the  largest  leads  to  Trondhjem,  a  cen- 
ti-r  for  steamer  trade. 


Fig.  14. — The  valley,  snbmerjred  by  sea  wa- 
ter, entering  tlirough  the  Golden  Gate, 
gives  San  Francisco  one  of  the  largest 
harbors  in  the  world. 


valley  harbors  (Fig.  14),  narrow  and  deep  arms  of  the  sea 
often  extending  far  into  the  land.  Long  sand  banks,  heaped 
up  by  the  waves  along  the  coast  from  Long  Island  to 
Florida,  some  distance  from  the  mainland,  inclose  water 
areas  that  maybe  called  barrier  harbors  (Fig.  15),  as  in 
Albemarle  and  Pimlico  Sounds,  usually  too  shallow  for  the 
larger  shipping.    Philadeljihia,  Kichmond,  and  'New  Orleans 


26 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


are  examples  of  river  harbors  (Fig.  16).     Many  atoll  har- 
bors   (Fig.    17)    are    found    in    the    Pacific    and    Indian 


ISLA]VD  HARBOR 


f^J-^-  — ^ 

\      -V- 

Avx  ■• " ' 

\       wW^(a^^^^ 

/■ 

V^^  w 

^■^N— ^^^Shangliai 

^,  MOUSE  l;^> 

RIVER  HARBOR-^,,— -^ 

V^" 

CHINA                Tsi-pa 

SCALE  1;  1,500,000 

/  / 

MILES                         ■ 1 ' 

\ 

0              5             10                            / 

Fig.  15.— Callao,  Peru,  and  Boston.  Mass.,  Fig.  16.— Shanghai  means  "Near  the  Sea." 

are  examples  of  ports  protected  more  or  The  port  is  an  example  of  a  fine  riv- 

less  by  the  barriers  that  islands  present  er  harbor  available  for  large  ocean  ves- 

to  the  sweep  of  ocean  waves.  sels. 

Oceans.  A  few  commercial  harbors  are  formed  by  the 
breaking  down  of  one  side  of  a  crater  (Fig.  18),  so  that 
the  sea  may  enter  the  depression. 


^ iGGENAOIK 

p.SS^^.^^"'^        ATOLL  HARBOR 

C  RALICK  IS.) 
SCALE  1;  1,500.000 


S.  W. Passage  MX- 


CRATER  HARBORS 


BANKS  PENINSULA 


Fig.  17.— Many  coral  islands  in  the  Pacific  Fig.  IS.— Akaroa  and  Lyttelton  are  good 
are  so  arranged  as  to  inclose  lagoons,  crater  harbors  in  New  Zealand.  Lyttel- 
into  which  ships  may  enter  through  pas-  ton  is  the  i)ort  of  Christchnrch,  the  sec- 
sages  between  the  islands.  ond  largest  town  in  the  colony. 


CHAPTEE  V 

human  control  of  commerce 

The  I:n^fluexce  of  Eaces,  Goverxmexts,  axd  Eeli- 
Gioxs— Impediments  to  Trade 

A  common  classification  of  the  races  is  into  the  black,  yel- 
low, and  white  types  (Fig.  19).  Commerce  is  very  unequally 
divided  among  them.  The  black  type  are  least  civilized, 
and  live  mostly  in  iVfrica,  south  of  the  Sahara  desert,  but 
millions  of  them — the  descendants  of  Africans  transported 
as  slaves — live  in  the  Americas  and  the  West  Indies.  The 
black  races  have  the  smallest  part  in  trade.  The  yellow- 
type,  which  include  the  American  Indian  and  the  Eskimo, 
predominate  in  Asia  and  are  seen  at  their  best  there  in  the 
Mongol  varieties,  of  whom  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  alone 
are  highly  civilized  and  take  an  important  part  in  trade. 
The  Turks  and  Magyars  of  Europe  and  the  Malayan  and 
Polynesian  peoples  belong  to  this  group. 

The  white  type  include  the  most  civilized  and  progres- 
sive peoples,  a  large  part  of  whom  live  in  the  temperate 
zones  where  climate,  soil,  and  a  great  diversity  of  natural 
resources  tend  to  produce  the  highest  development.  The 
Indo-Europeans,  the  largest  family  in  the  white  group,  have 
spread  all  over  the  world  and  control  most  of  its  commerce. 
They  dominate  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  the  Americas, 
Australia,  Africa,  and  large  parts  of  Asia  and  Oceania.  The 
Eomanic  races  of  Spain  and  Portugal  have  occupied  Soutli 
America,  the  Germanic  (or  Teutonic)  races  of  northern 
Europe  have  spread  over  North  America  and  Australia,  and 
the  Slavonic  Eussians  have  occupied  the  w^hole  of  northern 
Asia.     The  Germanic  races  have  been  most  active  in  ex- 

37 


HUMAN  CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE  29 

tending  civilization  and  developing  natural  resources  and 
commerce ;  and  the  governments  they  maintain  are  more 
efficient  than  any  others  in  protecting  life  and  property 
and  fostering  business  interests. 

Commerce  can  thrive  only  under  good  government.  Bad 
government  always  kills  or  cripples  industry  and  trade. 
Men  can  not  work  well  unless  peace  and  order  prevail,  and 
will  not  produce  much  if  they  are  likely  to  be  robbed  of 
their  products.  Flanders  was  the  great  manufactory  of 
Europe  till  the  sixteenth  century,  when  her  industries  were 
ruined  by  Spain's  occupation.  Under  the  tyrannical 
Mahdist  government  (ISSo-'OG)  the  area  of  cultivated  land 
in  fertile  Dongola,  on  the  upper  Xile,  was  diminished  two 
thirds.  The  trade  in  ostrich  feathers  and  gums,  sent  across 
the  desert  from  Timbuktu  to  Morocco  and  Tripoli,  is  being 
diverted  to  Senegal  because  the  French  have  made  the 
southern  route  safe  while  robbers  infest  the  Sahara. 

Good  government  promotes  commerce  in  many  ways. 
Government  departments  have  special  care  of  trade  and 
industrial  interests,  as  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce  at  Washington,  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Department  of 
Trade  and  Industry  in  France.  Government  funds  are 
used  to  improve  rivers  and  harbors,  dig  canals,  build  light- 
houses and  life-saving  stations,  make  sailing  charts  for 
ocean  vessels,  and  discover  and  mark  hidden  rocks  that  are 
a  danger  to  navigation.  Most  of  the  perils  of  the  sea  are 
near  the  coasts  where  the  waters  are  shallow,  and  all  coasts 
visited  by  merchant  vessels  are  therefore  charted  and  many 
thousands  of  soundings  are  shown  on  the  maps.  Govern- 
ments also  increase  and  improve  production  by  collecting 
and  distributing  information  of  value  to  farmers  and  man- 
ufacturers. The  sea,  lakes,  and  rivers  teem  with  food,  and 
fisheries  boards  promote  fish  culture  in  various  ways. 
Geological  surveys  locate  mining  and  quarrying  districts, 
sites  for  artesian  wells,  and  deal  witli  irrigation  problem?. 


30  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Many  citizens  of  one  country  have  large  business  inter- 
ests in  other  lands.  Each  nation,  therefore,  stations  its 
consuls  in  many  other  countries  to  have  special  care  over 
the  rights  and  interests  of  their  countrymen.  In  lands 
that  can  not  guarantee  the  protection  of  life  and  property, 
as  in  Morocco  and  some  Oriental  regions,  law  cases  in  which 
foreigners  are  concerned  are  tried  by  the  consuls  under  the 
laws  of  their  own  countries.  Nations  promote  trade  with 
one  another  by  commercial  treaties,  each  agreeing  to  reduce 
the  tariff  tax  upon  imports  of  the  other's  products  or  to 
maintain  a  fixed  schedule  of  duties  for  a  series  of  years, 
thus  obviating  the  disturbances  to  trade  caused  by  tariff 
changes.  If  the  treaty  contains  a  "  most  favored  nation  " 
clause,  the  two  countries  agree  that  each  shall  share  the 
trade  advantages  that  either  may  subsequently  give  to  any 
other  country  while  the  treaty  is  in  force. 

Tariffs,  or  taxes  upon  imports  and,  in  some  countries, 
exports,  are  maintained  by  all  governments  for  revenue ; 
and  many  nations  (the  chief  exception  being  Great  Britain) 
place  a  high  tariff  on  some  or  many  products  with  a  view 
to  protecting  home  industries  of  the  same  kind  from  com- 
petition. Usually,  only  a  small  tariff,  or  none  at  all,  is  im- 
posed on  raw  materials  imported  for  manufacture,  or  on  the 
most  needed  commodities,  if  they  can  not  be  produced  in 
sufficient  quantity  at  home.  The  effect  of  frequent  changes 
in  tariff  rates  is  to  unsettle  business.  Merchants  and 
manufacturers  are  reluctant  to  buy  or  produce  till  they 
know  how  an  impending  tariff  change  will  affect  prices. 
A  merchant  loses  money,  for  example,  if  he  buys  cloth  just 
before  a  change  in  the  tariff  reduces  the  import  duty  on 
cloth  and  thus  cheapens  it  in  the  market. 

To  secure  new  markets  for  their  products,  new  sources 
of  raw  material,  and  special  privileges  for  their  traders, 
European  powers  have  acquired  many  colonial  possessions 
(Fig.  20).  The  greater  part  of  Africa  has  thus  been  di- 
vided, in  recent  years,  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Ger- 


HUMAN   CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE  33 

many,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  Great  Britain  and  Germany 
have  acquired  most  of  the  unappropriated  islands  in  the 
Pacific.  Usually,  but  not  always,  the  mother  country  has  a 
larger  part  of  the  external  trade  of  her  colonies  than  any 
other  nation.  Thus  the  value  of  imports  into  Cape  Colony 
from  Great  Britain  are  nine  times  that  of  the  imports 
from  the  United  States,  which  stands  second  on  the  list. 
The  external  trade  of  Tunis  with  France  is  five  times  as 
great  as  with  any  other  country.  Besides  these  powerful 
influences  that  government  exerts  upon  trade  there  are 
other  factors  by  which  business  is  helped  or  hindered,  and 
some  of  them  will  now  be  considered. 

Predominant  religions  influence  commerce  (Fig.  21). 
Thus  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  due  to  religious  strife,  laid 
Germany  prostrate  and  destroyed  her  trade.  The  Eoman 
and  Greek  Catholic  countries,  in  proportion  to  population, 
consume  the  largest  amount  of  fresh  and  salted  fish. 
Canada's  exports,  for  example,  to  Italy,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Brazil  are  nearly  all  fish.  Alcoholic  liquors  are  imported 
into  Mohammedan  countries  only  to  a  small  extent,  as 
their  use  is  forbidden.  The  spread  of  Mohammedanism  in 
Africa  has  enlarged  the  demand  for  white  cottons  and  in- 
creased and  improved  the  production  of  native  cloth,  leather, 
and  other  manufactures.  Buddhist  opposition  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  foreign  trade  is  kept  out  of  Tibet. 

Capital  and  labor  are  both  necessary  to  industry  and 
commerce.  Capital  provides  the  raw  materials,  machinery, 
slielter,  food,  and  other  supplies  which  labor  utilizes  in  the 
production  and  marketing  of  commodities.  The  end  souglit 
is  attained  only  by  their  co-operation,  and  strife  between 
them  destroys  the  prosperity  of  both.  In  the  British  coal 
strike  (1893)  hundreds  of  factories  were  closed  for  lack  of 
fuel  to  supply  power,  and  thus  both  capital  and  labor  suf- 
fered severely.  Both  suffer  also  when  they  produce  more 
commodities  than  can  be  sold.  Over-production  diminishes 
or  destroys  both  profits  and  wages,  because  prices  are  sure 
3 


34  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

to  fall.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  to  study  the  fluctuations 
of  supply  and  demand.  Cotton-growers  and  manufacturers 
reaped  little  benefit  from  the  low  price  of  raw  cotton 
(1894)  brought  about  by  vast  production.  The  quantities 
of  goods  thrown  on  the  market  could  not  be  consumed. 
Sicily  (1895),  within  three  months,  shipped  to  America 
800,000  boxes  of  fruit,  glutting  the  market,  and  much  of 
it  was  sold  for  freight  charges  and  duties. 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  nations  having  an 
abundance  of  cheap  labor  are  not  always  enabled  thereby 
to  undersell  other  nations  which  may  pay  even  twice  as 
much  for  labor.  ^Tliis  is  because  the  cost  of  labor  is  to  be 
measured  not  by  the  wages  jjaid  but  by  the  value  of  the 
product  of  labor.  \  If  a  bootmaker  receives  $2  a  day  and 
makes  17  worth  of  boots,  his  labor  costs  less  than  that  of 
the  bootmaker  who  is  paid  only  |1  a  day  and  makes  only 
$3  worth  of  boots.  The  labor  on  a  ton  of  steel  billets  and 
rails  in  the  United  States  costs  less  (1901)  than  in  Great 
Britain,  though  American  wages  are  higher.  The  labor 
cost  of  a  certain  grade  of  shoes  in  a  Massachusetts  shoe  fac- 
tory, where  wages  are  high,  is  only  40  cents  a  pair,  but  in 
Germany,  where  wages  are  low,  the  cost  is  58  cents  a  pair. 
Such  results  are  due  to  highly  trained  labor  and  the  best 
labor-saving  machinery  and  skill  in  its  use,  which  greatly 
reduce  the  cost  of  products  though  the  price  of  labor  may 
be  high.  Thus  the  United  States,  with  high-priced  labor, 
is  able  to  sell  many  of  its  manufactures  in  foreign  markets 
in  competition  with  countries  in  which  the  price  of  labor 
is  low. 

Various  expedients  are  used  to  facilitate  trade.  When 
commerce  grew  beyond  the  stage  of  barter,  which  is  the 
direct  exchange  of  one  commodity  for  another,  a  medium 
of  exchange  was  necessary,  and  thus  money  came  into  use. 
Anything  that  has  value  may  be  used  as  money ;  thus  to- 
bacco in  Virginia  and  codfish  in  Newfoundland  were  once 
used.     Cowrie  shells  are  still  money  in  the  Sudan.     Gold 


HUMAN  CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE  35 

and  silver,  from  early  times,  have  been  the  money  of  civil- 
ized and  commercial  peoples,  because  they  are  intrinsically 
valuable  and  easily  coined.  A  currency  of  stable  value  is 
of  great  importance,  because  when  fluctuations  in  the  value 
of  the  currency  occur  it  is  not  easy  for  farmers,  manufac- 
turers, or  merchants  to  foretell  whether  they  will  make  or 
lose  money. 

It  is  an  impediment  in  the  business  relations  of  coun- 
tries if  they  use  different  standards  of  weights  and  measures. 
Iron  work  for  bridges  in  Xorway  was  ordered,  in  1900,  from 
Belgium.  The  specifications  were  based  on  the  metric 
system  of  measurements.  The  Norwegians  declined  to  re- 
duce them  to  British  feet  and  inches,  as  English  manufac- 
turers asked  them  to  do,  and  sent  the  work  to  Antwerp. 
All  nations  using  a  common  standard  of  weights  and 
measures  speak  the  same  language  as  far  as  weights  and 
measures  are  concerned.  This  is  the  reason  why  two  thirds 
of  the  people  living  under  Christian  governments  now  use  the 
metric  system  devised  in  Fjance.  The  people  of  the  United 
States  are  authorized  by  law  to  transact  their  business 
by  metric  standards  if  they  so  desire. 

Confusion  results  if  railroad,  telegraph,  and  other  busi- 
ness does  not  conform  to  a  common  standard  of  time.  Fif- 
teen degrees  of  longitude  equal  a  difference  of  one  hour  in 
time.  AVhen  it  is  exactly  noon  where  we  live  it  is  1  p.  m.  15° 
east  of  us  and  11  a.  m.  15°  west  of  us.  Philadelphia  time, 
longitude  75°  W.,  is  thus  five  hours  earlier  than  Greenwich 
time,  xill  the  leading  nations  except  France  take  Green- 
wich as  the  prime  meridian  or  0°  of  longitude.  The  hour 
zone  of  time  reckoned  from  Greenwich  for  every  15°,  or 
one  hour  difference,  east  or  west  of  the  prime  meridian, 
is  employed  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  75)  and  in  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  except  France,  Portugal,  and 
Greece. 

The  change  of  date  line  (Fig.  1)  to  mark  the  change  of 
day  in  circumnavigating  the  earth,  east  or  west,  is  placed 


36  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

in  the  Pacific,  where  navigators  may  most  conveniently  add 
a  day  to  or  subtract  a  day  from  their  calendar.  It  follows 
the  180th  meridian  except  where  it  is  carried  west  or  east 
to  give  certain  regions  the  eastern  or  western  date,  so  as  to 
serve  the  convenience  of  their  business  relations  with  the 
nearest  countries  or  their  political  interests.  In  Bering 
Sea,  for  example,  it  is  made  to  pass  between  the  Aleutian 
chain  and  the  Kussian  islands,  so  that  the  United  States 
territory  has  the  western  and  the  Eussian  territory  the 
eastern  date.  The  Spaniards  carried  the  western  date  to 
the  Philippines,  and  for  mauy  years  the  calendar  day  there 
was  twenty-four  hours  behind  that  of  any  other  part  of  the 
Orient.  The  resulting  confusion  finally  compelled  Spain 
to  adopt  the  eastern  date  in  her  colony. 

Commerce  is  most  influenced  by  density  or  sparsity  of  popu- 
lation (Fig.  22).  The  largest  commerce  can  be  developed 
only  in  well-populated  areas,  for  most  sparsely  peopled  re- 
gions can  buy  little  and  have  little  to  sell.  They  may  be  rich 
in  natural  resources,  but  have  neither  capital  nor  labor  to 
develop  them.  Thus  the  progress  of  most  Latin- American 
countries  has  been  slow.  Capital  is  not  easily  attracted  to 
railroad  building  where  population  is  too  sparse  to  insure  a 
profit.  Commercial  routes  develop  slowly,  and  the  people 
are  too  few  to  form  manufacturing  centers.  The  United 
States,  therefore,  welcomed  a  flood  of  European  labor,  while 
Canada,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  many  other  coun- 
tries have  offered  large  inducements  to  immigration.  The 
most  densely  peopled  regions  are  along  the  fertile  valleys 
of  great  rivers  like  the  Yangtse-Kiang,  the  Hoang-Ho, 
the  Ganges,  and  the  Xile ;  in  the  neighborhood  of  coal  and 
iron  mines,  sup23lying  fuel  for  steam  power  and  iron  for 
machine-making,  where  manufactures  are  consequently  well 
developed,  as  in  Belgium  and  Saxony;  and  along  the  sea- 
coasts,  where  temperature  and  rainfall  are  more  equable, 
and  the  cheapest  commercial  routes,  those  of  the  ocean,  are 
at  hand  (p.  18).     In  all  countries  of  the  Germanic  races 


ViDV^'  \ 


38  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

the  industrial  regions  are  most  and  the  agricultural  lands 
least  thickly  populated ;  but  this  rule  does  not  hold  in  the 
densely  peopled  lands  of  China  and  India,  which  are  agri- 
cultural countries,  whose  people,  moreover,  are  so  poor  that 
their  commerce  is  not  commensurate  with  their  great  popu- 
lation. 


CHAPTEE  VI 

teansportation 

The  Use  of  Wind,  Steam,  Animals,   Conduits,   and 
Electricity  in  Carrying  Commoditip:s 

More  freight  is  carried  between  different  countries  by 
water  than  by  land  (Fig.  23).  Nearly  three  fourths  of  the 
earth's  surface  is  ocean,  and  most  commodities  carried  from 
one  country  to  another  go  by  the  sea  route.  In  some  coun- 
tries, also,  as  in  Russia  and  China,  more  material  is  moved 
by  water  than  by  land  from  one  part  to  another  of  the  same 
country.  Many  rivers,  lakes,  and  inland  canals,  however, 
lose  much  importance  as  trade  routes  after  large  railroad 
systems  are  built ;  but  even  then  they  have  much  influence 
in  reducing  freight  rates  when  they  run  parallel  with  rail- 
roads and  thus  compete  with  them.  They  are  still  exten- 
sively utilized  for  freight  carriage  in  continental  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States,  though  railroad  freights  are  very 
cheap,  the  inland  water  ways  are  used  to  a  large  extent  in 
transporting  grain,  coal,  iron  ore,  lumber,  cotton,  and  other 
bulky  articles  ;  and  the  coastal  traffic  from  port  to  port  is 
very  large.  China  utilizes  interior  water  ways  more  than 
any  other  nation,  for  they  are  almost  her  only  interior  trade 
routes,  except  very  poor  cart  roads.  In  all  undeveloped  re- 
gions like  the  Congo  basin,  rivers  are  especially  utilized 
for  trade.  Great  improvements  in  transportation  have  been 
brought  about,  mainly  by  the  introduction  of  steam  in  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Economy  of  time  is  of  great  moment  in  transportation. 
Steam  has  therefore  superseded  wind  power  on  the  ocean. 

39 


40 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Ocean  sailing  vessels  merely  skirted  the  coasts  till  1500, 
and  then  for  three  centuries  they  commanded  every  sea 
till  the  rapid  development  of  steamships,  after  1840,  de- 
prived sailing  craft  of  many  opportunities,  though  they  still 
carry  much  freight  whose  speedy  delivery  is  not  important. 
Steamship  routes  are  usually  shorter  than  those  of  sailing 


'-"       <f^/^!tM 


Fig.  23. — The  average  number  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  constantly  afloat  on  the 
Atlantic  is  over  5.000.  It  is  the  greatest  sea  highway  because  the  most  important 
commercial  areas  (Fig.  1)  are  tributary  to  it.  Its  value  for  sea  trade  is  increased 
by  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  navigable  rivers  of  America  and  Europe  flow  to 
it.  Observe  the  wide  area  in  America  that  is  drained  to  the  Atlantic.  Contrast 
it  with  the  narrow  belt  that  is  drained  to  the  Pacific.  The  short  rivers  of  the 
Pacific  slope  are  comparatively  of  little  value  to  commerce.  The  rivers  of  the 
Arctic  drainage  area  are  of  small  commercial  importance,  because  they  are  frozen 
most  of  the  year  and  empty  into  an  ice-choked  sea. 

vessels,  as  their  course  is  more  direct  in  the  face  of  adverse 
winds  (p.  19).  Steamships  travel  about  four  times  as  fast,  and 
thus  steam  has  brought  the  nations  much  nearer  together. 
Columbus,  in  1492,  was  seventy  days  in  crossing  the  Atlan- 
tic from  Spain  to  the  Bahamas.  Benjamin  Franklin,  in 
1775,  was  forty-two  days  from  America  to  Europe.     The 


•  TRANSPORTATION  41 

steamship  Savannah,  in  1819,  crossed  the  Atlantic  from 
Savannah  to  Liverpool  in  twenty-two  days.  The  Xorth 
Atlantic  passage  was  reduced  in  1850  to  thirteen  days ;  in 
1860  to  eleven  days ;  in  1870  to  nine  days ;  in  1880  to  eight 
days.  Then  came  the  "  ocean  greyhounds,"  which  have 
reduced  the  record  between  Sandy  Hook  and  Queenstown 
to  less  than  five  and  a  half  days.  Goods  are  often  placed 
upon  the  shelves  of  Chicago  stores  within  ten  days  after 
they  leave  France.  Slow  transportation  sometimes  results 
in  actual  calamity,  as  in  China,  where  people  may  be  starv- 
ing in  one  province  before  rice  can  reach  them  from  another. 
The  common  roads  of  England  were  so  poor  in  early  days 
that  there  was  often  scarcity  of  grain  in  one  part  and  plenty 
in  another  part  of  the  country. 

Larger  ships  and  better  machinery  have  reduced  freight 
rates.  Though  the  sj^eed  limit  of  ocean  vessels  has  appar- 
ently been  reached  in  present  conditions,  the  substitution 
of  iron  and  steel  for  wood  in  shipbuilding  has  made  it  pos- 
sible to  build  much  larger  ships,  thereby  increasing  carry- 
ing capacity  and  reducing  the  cost  of  freight  per  ton.  In 
1897  the  Pennsylvania,  capacity  14,000  tons,*  was  built. 
In  1899  the  Oceanic,  17,000  tons,  was  launched,  and  even 
larger  vessels  are  now  afloat.  Improvements  in  muehinery 
have  reduced  the  cost  of  driving  vessels  and  thus  have 
diminished  freight  rates.  Better  furnaces,  boilers,  and 
engines  reduced  the  cost  of  steam  power  between  1870  and 
1897  about  40  per  cent.  One  pound  of  coal  now  supplies 
nearly  three  times  as  much  steam  power  as  in  1875.  Steam- 
ship companies  therefore  can  afford  to  carry  freight  at 
much  cheaper  rates  than  formerly.    A  bushel  of  wheat  is 

*  The  word  ton,  as  applied  to  vessels,  is  a  measure  of  capacity, 
meaning  100  cubic  feet  occupied  by  passengers  or  freight.  When  gross 
tons  are  specified  the  entire  cubic  contents  of  the  vessels  are  meant. 
A  steamship  has  nearly  four  times  the  carrying  power  of  a  sailing 
vessel  of  tlie  same  tonnage,  because  it  can  make  tlie  voyage  in  one  fourlh 
of  the  time. 


42 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Port  Said 

Mterran 


delivered  at  Liverpool  from,  the  Xortli  Dakota  wheat  fields 
at  a  little  over  20  cents.  Thus  cheap  freights  from  Amer- 
ica make  it  impossible  for  British  and  German  growers,  on 
their  high-priced  lands,  to  compete  with 
American  cereals.  Cheaj)  freights  also 
make  it  possible  to  send  heavy  and  bulky 
goods  of  low  value  to  far  distant  lands. 
Holland  imports  her  building  stone  ;  and 
lumber  is  profitably  imported  into  Cape 
Colony  and  China  from  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. Refrigeration  makes  it  possible  to 
transport  meats  and  other  perishable  com- 
modities thousands  of  miles  and  deliver 
them  in  good  condition.  Thus  onions  are 
delivered  in  prime  condition  from  Spain 
to  the  United  States,  and  tomatoes  from 
Spain  to  Great  Britain.  Fresh  grapes  are 
sent  in  cold  storage  to  the  midwinter 
markets  of  Great  Britain  from  Cape  Col- 
ony and  Australia.  Shipments  of  refrig- 
erated meats  began  in  1881,  and  now  mil- 
lions of  frozen,  dressed  beeves  and  sheep 
are  sent  every  year  from  Australia,  Xew 
Zealand,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay  to  the 
United  Kingdom  and  other  markets. 

Ship  canals  are  built  to  shorten  sea  routes 
(Figs.  24—28).  They  are  maintained  by 
tolls  on  the  shipping  that  utilizes  them. 
They  cheapen  freights  and  reduce  the  time 
required  for  delivery  of  goods.  They  pro- 
foundly afEect  not  only  trade  but  also  other 
occupations  of  men.  Before  the  Suez 
Canal  (Fig.  24)  was  built,  sailing  vessels 
carried  most  of  the  freight  between  north- 
west Europe  and  the  Far  East,  as  the  cost  of 
coaling   steamships   for    India    or    China 


SUEZ  CANALS 

SCALE   OF  M 


Fig.  24.— The  Suez 
Canal,  101  miles 
long,  as  compared 
with  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  route, 
shortened  the  dis- 
tance from  South- 
ampton to  Bom- 
bay by  4,800  nauti- 
cal miles.  The  ca- 
nal stimulated  the 
trade  of  all  Medi- 
terranean ports, 
and  diverted  ship- 
ping from  Cape 
Town,  formerly  a 
coaling  station  on 
the  sea  route  to  In- 
dia. 


TRANSPORTATION 


43 


via  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  was  very  great. 
Wheat  could  not  be 
carried  on  slow-sailing 
vessels  through  the 
hot  Indian  Ocean 
without  deteriora- 
tion ;  but  when  the 
canal  was  built  India 
became  a  great  wheat- 
exporting  and  con- 
sequently a  larger 
wheat-growing  coun- 
try. Some  ship  canals 
are  extended  inland 
to  make  a  seaport  of  an 
interior  city.  ■  Thus 
the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,  35|  miles  long, 
makes  that  inland  city 
a  seaport  and  saves  the 
transshipment  by  rail 
from  Liverpool  of  raw 
cotton  and  other  com- 
modities. Merchants 
who  must  transship 
goods  en  route  are  at 
a  disadvantage  com- 
pared with  those  who 
have  direct  transpor- 
tation to  many  ports 
as  extra  handling,  loss 
of  time,  and  therefore 
greater  expense,  are 
involved  in  transship- 
ment. 


£A1!I>ER  WILHELJI 
CANAL 

SCALE  OF   MItES 


Fig.  25.— The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  between  the 
month  of  the  Elbe  and  Kiel  Bay.  61  miles  long, 
admits  the  largest  vessels  and  saves  two  days' 
time  by  steamers  between  Hamburg  and  all  the 
Baltic  ports  of  Germany,  as  compared  with  the 
old  route  via  the  strait  between  Jutland  and 
Sweden. 


CORI>TII  (  W  VL 

^Gulf   of    Coi  inth,.ty^/    ,  ^  .SCALE  of  miles ^ 


u..  --IVi.  The  Isthmus  of  Curiiith  L'aual.  ;j /;  miles 
long,  connects  the  Ionian  and  vEgcan  Seas, 
and  gives  a  much  smootlier  and  shorter  pass- 
age from  Italy  to  Odessa  than  that  around  the 
south  end  of  Greece. 


^OItTll  11(11. LAN, 
Slllr  (  A.NAL 

6CALE  OF   I 


Kk;.  2".— The  North  Holland  ship  canal,  10  miles 
long,  was  built  by  the  Dutch  (Jovernment  to 
afford  shorter  transit  between  the 'North  Sea 
and  Amsterdam  available  for  large  vessels. 


44 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


PROJECTED 
NICARAGUA  AND 
PANAMA  CANALS 


Fig.  28. 


The  Nicaragua  or  the  Panama  Canal  (Fig.  28)  will 
shorten  the  sea  distance  from  all  Xorth  Atlantic  ports  to 

the  Pacific  ports  of  America 
one  half  or  more.* 

The  most  important  rail- 
roads connect  the  interior  with 
the  oceans  (Fig.  1).  Their  ex- 
tensions and  branch  lines  en- 
able them  to  provide  a  great 
many  interior  points  with  rap- 
id transit  to  the  ocean  high- 
ways. The  transcontinental 
lines  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  thus  a  part  (1901) 
of  the  shortest  and  quickest  routes  to  Japan,  East  China, 
and  Xew  Zealand  for  all  Xorth  Atlantic  ports  of  America 
and  Europe.  When  the  Siberian  railroad  is  completed  to 
Vladivostock  travelers  may  reach  Japan  and  China  in  less 
than  twenty  days  from  London. 

The  United  States  has  a  far  larger  mileage  of  railroads 
than  any  other  country  (Fig.  74).  Xearly  all  the  villages 
and  farms  of  the  United  States  east  of  Omaha,  Kansas 
City,  and  Houston  have  a  railroad  station  close  at  hand  or 
only  a  few  miles  distant,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  more 
thickly  settled  regions  have  quick  communication  with  one 
another  and  with  the  seaports.  Freight  trains  on  these 
roads  run  faster  and  freight  rates  are  lower  than  in  any 
other  country.  Thus  abundant,  rapid,  and  cheap  trans- 
portation has  helped  to  make  the  United  States  the  leading 
commercial    nation.      Is  it  any  wonder  that  there  is  far 


*  This  American  canal  will  bring  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America  nearer  to  Australia  and  Japan  than  any  north  European  city 
is,  and  will  place  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  on  even  terras 
with  Liverpool,  London,  and  Hamburg  in  relation  to  sea  distance  from 
all  the  coast  of  China  between  Hong  Kong  and  Tientsin.  West  of  Hong 
Kong  the  Suez  Canal  will  be  shorter  to  the  Orient  for  both  European 
and  American  ports  of  the  Xorth  Atlantic. 


X 


TRANSPORTATION  45 

smaller  commercial  development  in  Spain,  for  example, 
where  trains  run  only  15  to  20  miles  an  hour,  and  freight 
rates  are  so  high  that  it  costs  more  to  carry  goods  by  rail 
from  Saragossa  to  Barcelona,  200  miles,  than  by  ship  from 
England  ? 

Water  transportation  is  cheaper  than  land  transportation. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  same  power  can  move  a 
greater  tonnage  through  water  than  over  the  land.  The 
cheapest  freight  rates  are  on  some  of  the  long  ocean  routes. 
The  cost  of  moving  freiglit  on  the  great  lakes  of  JSorth 
America  is  slightly  higher  than  on  the  ocean,  because  lake 
vessels  are  smaller  and  navigation  is  restricted  at  the  con- 
necting rivers  and  canals.  The  cost  on  the  Erie  and  other 
canals  is  higher  than  on  the  Great  Lakes,  because  canal 
navigation  is  restricted  by  small  boats,  shallow  water  ways, 
and  locks.  The  average  cost  on  the  railroads  of  the  United 
States  is  about  twice  as  much  as  on  its  rivers  and  canals. 
The  cost  on  wagon  roads  is  much  higher,  varying  from  six  to 
ten  cents  a  mile  for  hauling  a  ton  of  freight  over  the  best 
roads  to  twenty-five  cents  or  more  over  very  poor  roads. 
The  cost  of  haulage  by  wagon  on  the  common  roads  of 
Europe  is  much  less  than  in  this  country  because  of  the 
superiority  of  the  European  roads.  In  Holland,  Eussia,  and 
India  there  is  little  or  no  rock  suitable  for  road  metal,  and 
many  of  the  Dutch  roads  are  paved  with  brick. 

Animal  power  is  the  most  expensive  means  of  transport 
(Fig.  21)).  It  is  still  used  where  there  is  littki  or  no  water 
or  rail  transportation.  Two  classes  of  draft  and  pack- 
animals  may  be  distinguished  :  (1)  those  which,  like  the 
reindeer,  yak,  llama,  and  elephant,  are  restricted  to  certain 
regions  and  (2)  those  which  may  range  over  nearly  the 
whole  world,  as  the  dog,  horse,  donkey,  and  ox.  In  equa- 
torial Africa,  where  there  are  few  pack  or  draft  aninuils, 
native  porters  carry  loads  of  60  to  80  pounds  on  their  backs. 
The  wages  of  Congo  porters  is  only  $10  a  month,  and  yet 
before  the  railroad  was  built  it  cost  over  $200  a  ton  to  move 


TRANSPORTATION  47 

freight  around  the  235  miles  of  cataracts  in  the  lower 
Congo. 

Fluid  commodities  gave  rise  to  conduits  as  a  means  of 
transport.  The  first  important  use  of  conduits  was  in  Greece 
and  Italy,  the  Eomans  building  fine  aqueducts  to  carry 
water  to  the  towns.  In  quite  recent  times  the  use  of  con- 
duits has  become  very  extensive,  and  such  commodities  as 
petroleum,  illuminating  gas,  and  water  are  conveyed  long 
distances  in  iron  pipes.  Crude  petroleum  is  forced  by 
pumps  through  pipe  lines  for  hundreds  of  miles  from  our 
oil  fields  to  the  refineries ;  and  the  Russians  pump  petro- 
leum over  the  mountains  for  600  miles  from  Baku  on  the 
Caspian  to  Batum  on  the  Black  Sea. 

Electricity  is  used  to  transmit  power  and  intelligence  (Fig. 
6).  The  energy  of  steam,  water,  wind,  or  other  power  used 
in  generating  electricity  may  thus  be  made  effective  many 
miles  away.  The  electric  motor  has  become  a  large  agent 
in  transportation,  particularly  in  street-car  service,  and 
intelligence  is  flashed  all  over  the  world  by  electricity. 
The  movements  of  vessels  and  trains  are  directed  by  wire. 
With  the  aid  of  200,000  miles  of  ocean  cable  lines  the 
business  men  of  widely  separated  countries  conduct  their 
mutual  affairs  as  though  they  lived  in  the  same  town. 
Long-distance  telephone  messages  are  sent  from  Maine  to 
Wisconsin  and  from  France  to  Holland.  Thus  electricity 
has  become  a  far-reaching  medium  of  communications 
upon  which  the  transactions  of  finance  and  commerce 
largely  depend.  The  postal  service  is  a  cheaper  and  slower 
means  of  communication.  It  is  so  important  that  the 
United  States,  for  example,  annually  expends  about  $10,- 
000,000  more  than  its  postal  receipts  to  provide  its  vast 
area  with  adequate  service.  Most  countries  are  members 
of  the  Postal  Union,  and  postage  charges  are  uniform  from 
any  country  of  the  Union  to  any  other,  except  that  in 
some  cases,  as  between  the  United  States  and  Canada,  the 
rates  are  lower  than  the  international  rates.     Tlie  value 


48 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


to  commerce  of  the  postal  and  telegraph  services  is  ines- 
timable. 

f 
Sea  Merchant  Vessels  of  the  Chief  Countries  in  1899 

(Tonnage  in  million  tons.) 


STEi 

MERS. 

Sailing 

VESSELS. 

Number. 

Gross  tons. 

Number. 

Gross  tons. 

The  United  Kingdom 

The  United  States 

7.654 
502 

1,095 
754 
734 
436 
464 
275 
251 

.  453 
338 
584 
192 
229 
118 

11.3 
0.8 
1.6 
0.9 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 

8,220 
3,697 
1.208 
1,614 
2.617 
1,145 

255 
1,609 

546 
2.415 

899 
1,568 

161 

344 
1,153 

2.9 
1.3 

Germany 

Prance 

0.5 
0.3 

Norway .... 

Spain 

1.1 
0.2 

Japan  

0.03 

Italy 

Netherlands 

0.5 
0.1 

Russia 

0.4 

Denmark  ....    

Sweden 

Austria-Hungary 

Brazil 

Greece 

0.1 

0.3 

0.04 

0.07 

0.2 

CHAPTEE  YII 

the  united  states 

Climate— j^Xatural  Features — Distributiox  of 
Leading  Products 

The  United  States  is  able  to  produce  at  home  nearly  all  the 
necessities  and  luxuries  of  life.  This  is  because  its  territory, 
extending  north  and  south  over  1,500  miles  and  varying  in 
altitude  from  sea  level  to  more  than  10,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  permits  the  cultivation  of  nearly  all  the  food  and 
industrial  plants  of  the  temperate  and  subtropical  zones. 
Its  mineral  resources  also  are  large,  and  the  inhabitants  are 
able  to  produce  most  of  the  commodities  they  desire.  Only 
countries  that  embrace  half  a  continent  and  great  variety 
of  climate  like  the  United  States,  or  all  of  a  continent  like 
the  Australian  Commonwealth,  may  thus  become  nearly 
self-sustaining. 

The  continental  climate  prevails  even  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  (p.  7).  The  country  east  of  the  Pacific  slope  is  there- 
fore colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer  than  western 
and  central  Europe.  If  there  were  high  mountain  ranges 
stretching  east  and  west  across  the  continent  they  might 
ward  off  the  icy  northern  and  hot  summer  blasts  that  blow 
over  nearly  the  whole  country,  but  they  would  also  arrest 
the  moist  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  that  now  scatter 
their  wealth  of  water  over  the  whole  length  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  making  it  one  of  the  most  productive  regions 
of  the  earth.  The  prevailing  climate  in  the  extreme  South 
is  subtropical,  while  along  the  Northern  frontier  and  in  tlie 
high  plateau  region  of  tlie  West  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
4  49 


50  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

ture  is  20° to  30°  lower;  so  that  the  hardy  cereals  are  the 
characteristic  products  of  the  most  Northern,  and  cotton, 
rice,  sugar  cane,  and  oranges  of  the  most  Southern  States. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  country  has  abundant  rainfall. 
As  the  precipitation  is  well  distributed  through  the  year 
the    growing   season   has   an   adequate    supply    (Fig.    30). 


115 11^ 96 85 


l/r 


a; 


_j  kulfOr  d 
2u   mid 
,  ■   Img  lie  I  A  reai 


Hi 


Fig.  30.— Rainfall  in  the  United  States. 
Good  crops  may  be  grown  with  18  to  20  inches  of  rain,  and  this  amount  is  doubled  in 
two  thirds  of  the  humid  region.  The  subarid  zone  is  a  belt  of  prairie  nearly 
200  miles  wide,  where  good  crops  grow  without  irrigation  only  one  or  two  years 
in  five.  It  merges  into  the  wide  arid  region,  whose  aridity  is  dne  to  the  arrest  by 
the  western  mountains  of  vapor-laden  winds,  preventing  them  from  passing  east- 
ward. Compare  this  map  with  Fig.  31  as  an  illustration  of  the  influence  in  the 
United  States  of  humidity  and  aridity  upon  density  of  population. 

Thus  the  country  east  of  a  line  passing  north  and  south 
through  the  central  parts  of  the  states  from  Xorth  Dakota 
to  Texas,  together  with  a  long  narrow  strip  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  comprises  the  area  of  farm  lands.  Here  and  there 
throughout  the  subarid  and  arid  regions  water  is  secured 
from  rivers  or  wells  to  give  fertility  to  adjoining  lands  by 
irrigation,  which  is  the  diversion  of  water  to  fields  and  gar- 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


51 


dens  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  cost  of  irrigation  in  Cali- 
fornia is  810  to  $20  an  acre,  which  is  more  than  balanced  by 
increased  productiveness. 

The  largest  number  of  deep-water  harbors  are  along  the 
North  Atlantic  coast.  They  face  the  Old  World  and  are 
nearest  to  the  leading  commercial  nations  (Fig.  1).  These 
inlets,  from  Maine  to  Virginia,  and  particularly  Massachu- 
setts, Xew  York,  Delaware,  and  Chesapeake  Bays,  being  the 
best  harbors  and  the  nearest  to  foreign  markets,  command 


Fig.  31.— The  density  of  population  in  the  United  States  is  far  less  than  in  any  coun- 
try of  Europe  except  Norway  and  Sweden.  With  its  small  density  of  population 
and  its  vei-y  large  territory  it  could  not  have  attained  the  present  development  of 
its  commerce  if  its  vast  system  of  communications,  chiefly  by  rail,  had  not  af- 
forded the  lowest  land  freight  rates  in  the  world. 


the  largest  part  of  the  export  and  import  trade.  The  At- 
lantic coast  south  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  have  smaller  harbors  of  much  importance  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  southern  and  Mississippi  Valley  products ;  but 
the  steep  Pacific  coast  has  no  harbors  of  importance  except 
those  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  Puget  Sound,  San  Diego,  and 
the  river  port  of  Portland,  Ore. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


53 


So  5" 


-^ 


H 
H 
■< 
H 

•a 


The  predominant  surface  forms  are  a 
wide,  low,  central  plain  shut  in  on  the 
east  by  low  mountain  ranges,  and  on  the 
west    by    high    plateaus    and    mountain 
ranges.     These  surface  forms  and  their 
general  effect  upon  industry  and  com- 
merce may  best  he  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  Figs.  33  and  33.     Contrast  the 
low-lying  Atlantic  and  southern  coastal 
plains  (white,  in  Fig.  32)  with  the  high, 
steep,  and  rocky  Pacific  coast.    Compare 
Fig.  32  with  Fig.  72,  and  note  the  many 
short  reaches  of  river  navigation  on  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboard  made  possi- 
ble by  the  gently  sloping  coastal  i^lains 
and  the  contrast  in  this  respect  which 
the  Pacific  coast  offers.     Xearly  all  the 
navigable   rivers  and   lakes  are   in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  country  tributary  to 
the  Atlantic,  the  highway  to  the  larg- 
est  foreign   markets.      This   fact   is  of 
great   advantage    to    the    producers    of 
breadstufl's    and   meats.      These    rivers 
and    lakes    supply   three    water    routes 
to    the    Atlantic:    (1)   the    Mississippi 
system   to    the    Gulf    of    Mexico;    (2) 
the   Great  Lakes,  supplemented  by  the 
Erie  Canal  to  the  Hudson  River ;   and ' 
(3)  through  the  St.  Lawrence  in   Can- 
ada.    The  Mississippi  basin  affords  over 
half   of   the   navigable   mileage   of   the^ 
country.      In   the  western   half   of   the 
country,  the   railroad  is  the  commerce 
carrier,   except   that   the    Pacific   slope* 
has  about   1,400  miles  of  river  naviga- 
tion. 


54  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Atlantic  coastal  plain  has  a  large  variety  of  indus- 
tries. This  is  due  in  part  to  the  diversity  of  the  soils, 
which  are  arranged  in  narrow  belts  extending  north  and 
south.  A  clay  belt  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  plain  gives 
rise  to  the  potteries  of  Xew  Jersey ;  farther  east  is  a  hilly 
belt  with  limestone  soil  devoted  to  cereals  and  hay ;  still 
nearer  the  ocean  is  a  sandy  plain,  either  barren  or  covered 
with  pine  forests,  which  in  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and 
Florida  yield  large  supplies  of  lumber  and  turpentine ;  and 
along  the  sea  edge  are  swamps,  particularly  south  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  very  fertile  when  drained,  and  producing  much 
rice  in  the  Carolinas  and  farther  south.  Large  quantities 
of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  raised  for  Xorthern  markets, 
and  the  most  important  fisheries  are  those  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Water  power  along  the  inner  edge  of  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain  developed  manufacturing.  The  rivers  cross- 
ing from  the  hard  rocks  of  the  Appalachian  belt  to  the  soft 
rocks  of  the  coastal  plain  have  more  rapidly  worn  away 
the  soft  rocks,  thus  forming  falls  and  rapids.  This  line  of 
falls  is  called  the  "  fall  line."  Manufacturing  towns  from 
Trenton,  X.  J.,  to  Montgomery,  Ala.,  which  use  the  water 
power  are  shown  in  Fig.  72,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  coast  rivers. 

The  Appalachian  belt  contributes  the  larger  part  of  the 
country's  coal,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas,  and  much  of  its 
iron.  It  consists  of  mountains  and  border  plateaus,  and 
extends  behind  the  coastal  j^lain  from  Maine  to  Alabama. 
This  belt,  a  source  of  great  water  power,  made  Xew  Eng- 
land the  first  and  largest  center  of  factories.  Manufactures 
and  commerce  therefore  have  thus  far  been  most  highly 
concentered  in  the  East,  where  there  are  fine  natural  har- 
bors, rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  near  them,  many  rivers 
of  large  or  considerable  value  to  commerce,  abundant  water 
power,  and  comparative  proximity  to  Europe. 

The  southern  coastal  plain  is  mainly  agricultural.  It  is 
almost  wholly  included  in  the  cotton  belt,  but  has  impor- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  55 

tant  sugar  production,  chiefly  in  Louisiana,  and  all  the 
Gulf  States  produce  large  quantities  of  lumber.  It  merges 
in  the  Great  Valley. 

The  Great  Valley  is  pre-eminently  the  agricultural  region. 
The  northern  part  is  the  greatest  wheat  and  maize-pro- 
ducing area  in  the  world,  the  southern  part  the  greatest 
cotton-growing  area,  while  in  the  border  lands  between 
them  (mainly  Kentucky)  is  the  largest  of  the'  tobacco 
areas.  There  is  extensive  hog  and  cattle  raising  in  the 
corn  belt  from  Nebraska  to  Ohio,  where  the  chief  centers 
of  the  animal  industries  (meat  packing,  etc.)  are  situated. 

The  Great  Plains  are  the  largest  field  of  the  grazing  in- 
dustry. They  extend  from  Canada  to  Mexico  (Fig.  32). 
The  rainfall  in  large  sections  is  insufficient  for  tillage  with- 
out irrigation,  but  millions  of  cattle  and  sheep  feed  on  nu- 
tritious bunch  and  other  grasses  over  nearly  three  fourths 
of  the  plains.  Sparsity  of  population  (Fig.  31)  begins  on 
the  plains  and  continues  to  the  Pacific  coast  settlements, 
except  in  a  few  small,  well-watered  districts. 

The  Great  Plateaus  are  the  largest  sources  of  gold  and 
silver.  They  are  surmounted  by  the  Eocky  Mountains,  ex- 
tend from  the  Great  Plains  to  the  Sierra  Xevada  range,  and 
include  the  Great  Basin,  whose  few  rivers  have  no  outlet  to 
the  sea.  These  arid  plateaus  embrace  about  one  third  of 
the  country.  The  mines  among  the  mountains  supply  a 
third  of  the  world's  output  of  silver  and  a  fourth  of  the 
output  of  gold.  Agriculture  is  possible  only  by  means  of 
irrigation,  except  along  a  few  river  valleys  in  the  north. 

The  Pacific  coast  has  gold,  wheat,  lumber,  and  fruit  as  its 
leading  products.  The  northern  two  thirds  is  well  watered 
(Fig.  30),  and  irrigation  has  reclaimed  large  tracts  ^farther 
south.  The  rich  wheat-growing  regions  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  valleys  in  California,  and  of  the  Willamette 
and  other  valleys  in  Oregon  and  Washington,  are  the 
granaries  of  the  Pacific  slope.  The  mountains  of  the  north, 
clad  with  pine,  spruce,  and  firs,  are  one  of  the  country's 


56  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

chief  sources  of  lumber  sujiply.  Thus  wheat  and  lumber 
are  very  large  shipments  from  Pacific  coast  ports.  The 
vine  and  subtropical  fruits  are  also  grown  with  success. 

The  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  is  the  largest 
source  of  iron  and  of  inland  fisheries.  Most  of  the  white 
pine  lumber  also,  the  largest  wood  croj)  of  the  country, 
comes  from  the  upper  lake  region;  the  south  and  west 
shores  of  Lake  Superior  produce  the  largest  iron  ore  output 
of  the  country  ;  in  the  Keweenaw  Peninsula  on  the  south 
shore,  are  some  of  the  largest  copper  mines  of  the  world. 
In  the  southern  part  of  this  basin  are  scores  of  manufac- 
turing towns  whose  prosperity  is  partly  due  to  their  con- 
venient situation  between  supplies  of  iron  ore  on  the 
north  and  coal  on  the  south.  The  Great  Lakes  are  the 
highway  on  which  many  of  the  most  bulky  commodities  of 
the  country  are  transported  in  large  steamers  at  low  freight 
rates,  such  as  the  wheat  of  the  Dakotas,  the  iron  ore  and 
lumber  of  Minnesota,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  and  coal 
from  the  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  fields. 

Manufacturing  is  carried  on  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States.  While  these  industries  are  chiefly  in  the  northeast 
and  north  central  parts  of  the  country,  they  are  found 
wherever  conditions  are  favorable  for  collecting  raw  mate- 
rials and  marketing  products.  Thus,  in  the  Southern 
states  sugar  is  refined  at  Xew  Orleans,  near  which  are  the 
largest  cane  plantations.  Lumber  and  furniture  are  made 
at  Macon,  Montgomery,  and  Mobile,  near  the  large  forests 
of  the  Gulf  states.  The  manufacturing  areas  are  prac- 
tically identical  with  the  regions  covered  by  the  two  darker 
shades  in  Fig.  .31.  The  development  of  the  vast  resources 
whose  distribution  is  here  briefly  outlined  has  made  the 
United  States,  in  a  little  over  a  century,  a  nation  of  sev- 
enty-six million  people,  the  largest  agricultural  and  manu- 
facturing and  the  most  nearly  self-sustaining  nation  in  the 
world, 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE    UNITED    STATES-ICon/niued) 

Vegetable  Food  Peoducts,  Beyekages,  Tobacco, 

A-HB   THE   TeADE    IX    ThEM 

The  United  States  holds  the  first  place  as  an  agricultural 
nation.  Its  farms,  five  million  in  number,  make  the  largest 
contribution  to  the  worlcrs  supply  of  breadstuffs,  meat 
products,  and  raw  cotton.  Most  of  the  land  available  for 
tillage  in  the  humid  area  is  now  owned  by  farmers,  but 
only  a  fourth  of  it  is  tilled.  The  remainder  is  uncultivated 
or  in  timber. 

All  vegetable  farm  products  were  derived  from  wild  plants. 
They  have  been  greatly  improved  in  size  and  nutritive 
quality  by  cultivation.  Some  of  them,  as  maize,  the  potato, 
tobacco,  and  the  tomato  and  pumpkin,  were  not  known  in 
Europe  till  introduced  there  from  America.  The  cereals 
are  a  few  grasses  whose  seeds,  improved  and  enlarged  by 
tillage,  are  used  as  breadstuffs.  They  are  the  vegetable 
food  of  most  importance,  and  hence  are  the  largest  product 
of  the  world's  farming  lands  (Fig.  34). 

1000  2000 

J 1 I I 1 I I I I I I [ I I I I       I      I      I       I       I       I      f      I      I       I       I 


^™""  Fig.  3-).— World's  production  of  cere- 
"^^^  al.s.  ill  million  bushels.  Unbroken 
lines  show  average  annual  yield  for  ten  years, 
18«0-'»9.    Broken  lines  show  yield  in  1898. 

57 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


59 


Wheat  is  the  most  widely  distributed,  most  costly  and  nu- 
tritious of  the  cereals  (Figs.  35  and  36).  It  is  the  chief 
breadstulf  of  western  Europe  and  the  temperate  parts  of 
America.  It  tl^l'ives  in  temperate  climates,  and  is  also  a 
winter  crop  in  warm  countries  like  northern  India,  where 
the  winter  is  at  least  as  cool  as  a  Minnesota  summer. 


)                         100                       200                       300                       100                       500 

1  1  >>  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  ,  1  1  ,  1 1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

FRANCE 

SPAIN 

UNITED  KINGDOM 

RUMANIA 

ARGENTINA 

CANADA 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

^^^^                                               Fig.  36. — Average  wheat  crop  of 
the  world  for  five  years,  1894  to 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  wheat  producer  (Figs.  36 
and  37).  This  is  due  not  only  to  suitable  climate  and  soil, 
but  also  to  cheap  land,  the  best  agricultural  machinery,  and 
the  most  economical  methods  of  handling  and  transporta- 
tion. Wheat  is  sent  to  market  in  bulk  (in  a  loose  con- 
dition). From  the  time  it  leaves  the  farm  wagon  it  is 
handled  almost  wholly  by  mechanical  means.  The  labor  is 
greatly  reduced  by  grain  storehouses,  called,  elevators,  into 
which  the  grain  is  raised  and  emptied  into  bins  and  later 
transferred  to  the  conveyance  in  wliich  it  is  forwarded,  all 
the  work  being  done  by  machinery.  As  each  owner's  grain 
can  not  be  kept  separate  from  the  rest,  it  is  inspected  and 
graded,  each  quality  going  into  bins  assigned  for  its  grade, 
and  a  receipt  being  given  to  the  owner  showing  the  quantity 


60 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  quality  of  his  grain.     Only  the  larger  grain  centers  of 
Europe  employ  this  economical  American  system. 

The  domestic  distribution  of  wheat  and  flour  is  very  large. 
Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  which  comprise  the  greatest 
wheat  region,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Washington,  and  Oregon  sell 


I23.-'ri;;;.,  (116 


Fig.  37.— Observe  the  chief  wheat-shipping  ports  and  the  cities  producing  most  flour. 
While  wheat  is  grown  in  many  States,  the  areas  of  largest  production  are  com- 
paratively small.  Eastern  farm  lands  can  not  now  compete  in  wheat  raising  with 
the  low-priced  prairies  of  the  Northwest.  The  plump  kernel  winter  wheat  is 
grown  in  the  Central  and  Southern  States.  Hard  spring  wheat  of  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  the  wheat  of  export,  is  the  best  for  many  puqjoses;  its  price  regu- 
lates the  world's  wheat  markets. 


the  larger  part  of  their  product  to  buyers  outside  their  own 
territory.  All  the  northeastern,  southern,  and  Eocky  Moun- 
tain states  must  buy  wheat  to  make  up  their  deficiency. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  seller  of  export  wheat 
(p.  74).     About  one  half  of  its  total  crop  is  sold  in  foreign 


^f 


'«M.« 


THE  UNITED  STATES  01 

countries.  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  Balkan  states 
are  the  only  European  countries  raising  all  the  breadstuffs 
they  require.  All  the  others  buy  wheat  from  the  United 
States,'  Russia,  India,  Hungary,  Argentina,  or  Australia. 
Russian  and  Argentine  wheat  have  only  a  short  haul  to  ship- 
ping ports,  while  our  wheat  must  be  carried  an  average  dis- 
tance of  1,000  miles  to  ocean  steamers.  This  disadvantage 
is  overcome  by  low  rates  of  rail  and  water  freightage  to 
United  States  seaports. 

One  third  or  more  of  the  United  States  wheat  exports 
is  in  the  form  of  flour  (p.  74).  Flour  manufacture  was 
revolutionized  by  the  new  milling  process  adopted  in  the 
hard  wheat  region  about  1874.  Chilled  iron  and  porcelain 
rollers  took  the  place  of  the  old  millstones,  the  grain  being 
run  through  six  or  seven  sets  of  rollers.  A  large  part  of 
the  wheat  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  is  ground  into 
flour  at  Minneapolis  and  Superior,  and  thence  distributed 
East,  South,  and  to  Europe  (Fig.  37) ;  Minneapolis,  on  the 
threshold  of  the  hard  wheat  region,  is  the  largest  milling  I 

center  in  the  world.  Great  Britain  buys  about  four  sevenths 
of  all  the  flour  the  United  States  sells ;  other  European 
countries  buy  more  wheat  than  flour  and  do  most  of  their 
own  milling.  All  tropical  and  Oriental  countries  buy  much 
more  flour  than  wheat,  for  they  lack  the  flour-making  facil- 
ities that  the  large  wheat-raising  countries  have  perfected. 

Maize  or  Indian  corn  is  the  best  grain  for  fattening' 
animals  (Fig.  38).  It  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  fats 
than  other  cereals.  Europeans  eat  little  of  it,  but  feed  it 
to  their  stock.  Americans,  however,  use  it  extensively  as 
food  both  for  man  and  beast.  It  is  also  widely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  distilled  liquors,  starch,  and  glucose. 

Maize  is  the  largest  cereal  crop  of  the  United  States. 
This  country  produces  three  fourths  of  the  world's  supply 
(Fig.  39).  The  greatest  maize-growing  states  are  Xebraska, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  which 
are  known  as  the  Corn  Belt.     Most  of  the  enormous  crop 


THE   UNITED  STATES  63 

in  the  corn  belt  is  fed  to  hogs  and  cattle  and  thus  con- 
verted into  pork  and  beef;  the  live  stock  return  to  the 
land  as  manure  much  of  the  valuable  salts  extracted  from 
it;  and  the  animal  waste  products,  converted  into  fer- 
tilizers, also  help  to  maintain  fertility.  Maize  is  exported 
mainly  in  the  condensed  form  of  meat.     The  exportation 


UNITED  STATES 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

ITALY 

RUMANIA 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


I'ImImI'I:';:!^ 


Fig.  39. — Production  of  maize  by  countries,  in 
million  bushels.  Unbroken  lines  show  average 
annual  yield  for  five  years,  1885-'89.  Broken 
lines  show  yield  in  1898. 


of  the  grain  is  large  only  to  northwest  Europe  and  Canada, 
and  the  value  of  the  total  export  is  only  one  third  that  of 
wheat  and  wheat  flour  (p.  74).  The  reasons  for  this  com- 
paratively small  export  of  the  grain  are  (1)  its  low  price  in 
proportion  to  weight  (p.  74),  making  its  transportation 
more  expensive  than  that  of  wheat ;  and  (2)  its  limitation 
to  animal  feeding  in  the  importing  countries  of  Europe. 

Oats  is  used  chiefly  as  horse  feed.  Its  importance  as 
human  food  is  increasing  with  the  larger  consumption  of 
prepared  cereal  foods.  It  is  grown  most  largely  in  the  corn 
belt  of  the  United  States  and  i?!  the  moist  sea  climate  of 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  western  Xorway,  and  near  the  Baltic 
coasts  of  Germany  and  Russia  (Fig.  40).  Half  of  the  small 
export  from  the  United  States  is  sent  to   Great    Britain 

(p.  -5). 

Rye  is  an  important  food  grain  in  Russia,  Germany,  and 
Scandinavia.  It  is  cheaper  than  wheat  and  not  so  nutri- 
tious. It  is  largely  used  in  distilling  whisky  in  the  United 
States,  gin  in  Holland,  and  vodka  in  Russia.  Russia  is 
the  largest  producer  (Fig.  41).     Our  export  is  small  (p.  75). 


0  100 

I    I    I    I    I    I    I 


UNITED  STATES 


GREAT  BRITAIN  & 
IRELAND 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
CANADA 


DENMARK 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


200      300      400      500      600      700 

I  I  I  '  I  I  I  I  I  '  I  I  I  I  I  '  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  I  '  I  I  I  1 


Fig.  40.— Production  of  oats  byconntries.  in  million 
bushels.  •  Unbroken  lines  show  average  yield 
for  five  years,  1885-'89.  Broken  lines  show 
yield  in  1898. 


0  100  200  300 

I   'I   I   I  I   I   I   I   I  I   1   I   i  I  I   I 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
FRANCE 
GREAT  BRITAIN 
OTHER  COUNTRIES 


500  600 

I    1    '    I    1    I    I    I 


Fig.  41.— Production  of  rye  by  countries,  in  mil- 
lion bushels.  Unbroken  lines  show  average 
yield  for  five  years,  1885-89.  Broken  lines 
show  yield  in  1898. 


RUSSIA 

AUSTRIA-HUNGAR-i 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


OTHER  COUNTRIES 


50 

100 

200 

1    ,    ,    ,    .    1    1    ■    ,    ,    1    ,    , 

300 

1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1   1    1 



■  l^H^^ 

— 

- 

__Mi»_a«_MH»^l-B^^^M.B.^MI^^ 

Fig.  42.— Production  of  barley  by  countries,  in  millinn  busliols.     Unbroken  lines 
show  average  yield  for  five  years,  1885-'89.    Broken  lines  show  yield  in  1898. 

64 


THE  UNITED  STATES  65 

Barley  is  most  used  for  beer  brewing.  In  north  Europe 
it  is  also  used  for  bread  and  horse  feed.  Grown  from  Xor- 
way  to  Algeria,  it  has  a  large  climatic  range,  and  its  culture 
in  England  and  Germany  is  about  as  important  as  that  of 
wheat  (Fig.  42).  California  raises  nearly  one  third  of  the 
crop  in  the  United  States.  !N early  all  American  barley  is 
malted  for  beer  brewing  (j?.  7-4). 

Rice  is  the  main  food  supply  of  haK  the  population  of 
the  world.  It  is  the  largest  food  resource  in  southern  and 
eastern  Asia  (Fig.  43).  Two  crops  a  year  are  grown  on 
Asian  lowlands  and  deltas  wherever  there  is  abundant 
water.  The  southern  coastal  plain  of  the  United  States, 
chiefly  Louisiana  and  Texas,  supplies  about  one  half  the 
quantity  the  country  consumes.  Improved  field  machinery, 
the  substitution  of  pumping  for  natural  irrigation,  and 
better  processes  of  milling  encourage  rice-growing  in  the 
United  States. 

Buckwheat  is  grown  in  Eussia,  France,  and  some  Alpine 
districts.  Its  acreage  in  the  United  States  has  declined 
one  half  in  thirty-five  years. 

The  sugar  of  commerce  is  derived  almost  wholly  from  sugar 
beets  and  sugar  cane  (Fig.  38).  The  Teutonic  peoples,  par- 
ticularly the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  are  the  largest  consumers, 
while  the  Latin  races  eat  much  less.  In  fifty  years  beet 
sugar  has  largely  supplanted  cane  sugar,  and  thus  the  great- 
est producing  areas  have  been  shifted  from  the  tropics  to 
the  temperate  zones,  and  the  price  of  sugar  has  been  re- 
duced about  one  half  in  thirty  years  (p.  75). 

The  beet  supplies  two  thirds  of  the  total  sugar  product. 
North  and  central  Europe  make  nearly  all  the  beet  sugar, 
and  Germany  is  the  largest  producer  (Fig.  44).  The  in- 
dustry thrives  in  California,  and  is  followed  on  a  small  scale 
in  Utah,  Nebraska,  and  New  York.  The  cane  sugar  indus- 
try was  crippled  by  the  abolition  of  slave  labor  in  the  West 
Indies  and  the  competition  of  beet  sugar.  Sugar  cane 
thrives  in  many  warm  lands  (Fig.  45).     Most  of  the  cane 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


67 


sugar  produced  in  the  United  States  is  grown  in  Louisiana, 
on  the  flood  plain  and  delta  of  the  Mississippi. 

Sugar  making  begins  on  the  farm  and  ends  at  the  re- 
finery.    The  juice  obtained  from  the  sliced  beet  by  soaking 


,        ,        ,        ,     500  1000  1500 

lllllllllMllllllinlllMllinrlliiillll,li,,i!iiillMlil,iiilinilniili,nlin,l,.,il.| 


GERMANY 

AUSTRIA 

FRANCE 

RUSSIA 

BELGIUM 

HOLLAND 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  44. — Annual  production  of  beet  sugar  by 
countries,  in  tiiousand  tons. 


it  in  warm  water,  with  which  it  mingles,  and  from  the  cane 
by  crushing  the  stalk  between  rollers,  is  evaporated  to  elim- 
inate the  water.  Two  products  result :  raw  sugar,  brown 
or  yellow  in  color,  and  molasses.     The  raw  sugar  is  sent  in 


( 

200 

400 

1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1 

GOO 

1   1   1   1   1   1   1   1   1 

800 
Mil  Ll_uJ 

JAVA 

CUBA 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 

BRAZIL 

MAURITIUS       / 

QUEENSLAND 

LOUISIANA 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

P'iG.  4.'). — Annual  production  of  caiie  suirar  by  countries,  in  lli<iu.>^Mnd  tons. 

tierces,  hogsheads,  and  bags  to  refineries,  and  is  wliite  when 
ready  for  market.  As  the  difference  between  the  cost  of 
raw  and  refined  sugar  is  only  about  a  cent  a  pound,  sugar 
refining  can  be  profitably  conducted  only  by  very  large  plants 
turning  out  an  enormous  product.  It  is  thus  restricted  in 
the  United  States  to  a  few  mammoth  refineries  in  the  sea- 


68  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

ports  of  Brooklyn,  Jersey  City,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Balti- 
more, 'New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco,  which  draw  upon 
all  parts  of  the  world  for  raw  cane  sugar,  and  also  buy  a 
small  portion  of  the  raw  product  from  the  sugar  beet  farms 
of  Europe. 

Among  lesser  sugar  products  is  maple  sugar,  made 
from  the  sap  of  the  sugar  maple,  chiefly  in  Vermont,  Xew 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio  (p.  75) ;  sorghum,  grown  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  for  molasses,  a  syrup  wliich  is  also 
produced  in  the  manufacture  of  cane  and  beet  sugar  on 
sugar  plantations  (as  West  Indies  and  N^ew  Orleans  molasses) 
and  in  sugar  refineries  (sugar-house  molasses).  Molasses  is 
a  cheap  substitute  for  sugar,  and  is  also  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rum.  Glucose  is  a  liquid  sugar  produced  in  the 
United  States  from  corn  starch,  and  in  France  and  Ger- 
many from  potato  starch,  and  used  for  confectionery  and 
for  mixing  with  molasses  in  the  manufacture  of  table 
syrups.     Various  palms  in  India  yield  sugar  (jaggery). 

^  Sugar  is  the  largest  import  into  the  United  States.  The 
per  capita  conswrniytion  is  GO  pounds  a  year,  and  this  country 
leads  the  world  as  a  sugar  consumer.  All  the  wheat  the 
country  sells  to  foreign  lands  does  not  pay  for  the  sugar  it 
buys  from  them.  Germany  supplies  nearly  all  the  beet 
sugar,  refined  and  raw,  that  the  country  buys.  The  United 
States  is  tlie  only  leading  nation  which  still  consumes  far 
more  cane  than  beet  sugar  (p.  75).  The  largest  part  of 
the  cane  sugar  supply  comes  from  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  South  America. 

Fast  transport  and  cold  storage  have  stimulated  commerce 
in  fresh  fruits.  Xorth  Eurojie  receives  fresh  grapes  in  mid- 
winter from  South  Africa  and  Australia.  California  sends 
grapes,  pears,  peaches,  and  apricots  to  the  most  distant 
home  markets  in  competition  with  nearer  sources  of  supply. 
The  strawberry  is  the  most  valuable  small  fruit  in  this 
country.  The  fruit  industry  is  largely  specialized,  the 
peach,  for  example,  thriving  mainly  in  particular  localities, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  69 

as  in  Michigan,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  western  Xew 
York.  Fruit  preserving  and  canning  is  a  very  large  in- 
dustry. Pineapple  raising  in  Florida,  and  orange,  lemon, 
and  olive  culture  in  California,  have  diminished  tropical 
and  subtropical  imports,  of  which  the  largest  items  are 
bananas  from  the  nearer  Latin-American  countries  and 
lemons  from  Italy.  Dried  fruits,  such  as  currants,  raisins, 
dates,  and  figs,  are  largely  imported  into  the  United  States, 
as  well  as  into  all  other  northern  countries.  Dried,  green, 
and  ripe  apples  comprise  about  one  third  of  the  fruit  ex- 
ports from  the  United  States.  The  United  Kingdom  is  the 
largest  consumer  of  our  fruits,  and  France,  Germany,  and 
Canada  are  also  important  buyers. 

Root  crops  and  garden  truck  have  little  part  in  inter- 
national trade.  They  are  too  heavy  in  proportion  to  value  to 
be  worth  long-distance  transport,  but  Bermuda  seads  many 
early  potatoes  and  onions  to  the  United  States.  The 
potato  is  the  staple  food  of  many  of  the  European  peasantry, 
especially  in  north  Germany  and  Ireland.  It  is  raised  in 
all  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  is  not  so  large  a  feature 
of  the  dietary  as  in  Europe. 

Several  plants  yielding  beverages  are  of  large  commercial 
importance  (Fig.  4G).  They  are  (1)  those  containing  sugar  or 
starch,  which  by  fermentation  is  changed  into  alcohol  (alco- 
holic drinks),  and  (2)  those  whose  leaves  or  seeds  infused 
in  water  yield  a  stimulating  drink,  as  coffee  or  tea.  Wine, 
the  most  important  alcoholic  drink,  is  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  grape.  It  is  the  common  beverage  of  south  Eui'ope 
and  of  France,  which  is  now  the  chief  wine  land  of  the 
world,  Italy  and  Spain  coming  next.  The  cheapest  quali- 
ties are  sold  in  those  countries  for  a  few  cents  a  gallon. 
The  United  States  produces  most  of  the  wine  it  consumes, 
California  supplying  half  of  it.  The  industry  is  growing  in 
importance  in  Xew  York,  Ohio,  and  some  otlier  States.  The 
imports  from  Europe  amount  to  4,000,000  gallons  a  year,  and 
the  tendency  is  to  consume  less  foreign  and  more  American 


THE   UNITED  STATES  Yl 

wine.  There  is  a  growing  export  of  California  wines  to 
Europe,  Japan,  and  China.  Beer,  the  favorite  beverage  in 
north  Europe,  is  made  from  cereals,  usually  barley,  changed 
into  malt  by  partial  germination,  thus  converting  the  starch 
into  saccharine  matter ;  water  and  hops  are  added  and  the 
mixture  is  fermented.  The  chief  use  of  hops  is  in  beer- 
making,  and  this  crop  is  grown  largely  in  Europe  and 
America.  Germany  is  the  largest  producer  of  beer,  Great 
Britain  second,  and  the  United  States  third.  Spirits  are  di- 
luted alcohol  derived  by  distillation  from  fermented  liquors. 
They  are  used  as  a  beverage  or  medicine,  and  have  special 
flavors,  according  to  the  origin  of  the  alcohol.  Thus  brandy 
is  distilled  from  wine,  whisky  from  various  grains,  as  corn 
and  rye,  and  rtim  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  and 
molasses. 

Non-alcoholic  beverages  contain  caffeine,  to  which  they 
owe  much  of  their  stimulating  quality.  The  infusion  of  the 
roasted  coffee  bean  (Fig.  4G)  is  one  of  the  most  widely  used 
beverages  in  Xorth  America  and  north  Europe.  Over  three 
fifths  of  the  world's  crop  come  from  Brazil.  In  the  United 
States  nearly  10  pounds  per  capita  are  annually  consumed. 
Brazil  supplies  about  three  fourths  of  the  coffee  imports  of 
the  United  States  (p.  75).  The  business  of  roasting  the 
bean  and  distributing  the  commodity  over  the  country  is 
very  large.  Tea  (Fig.  46)  is  the  dried  leaf  of  the  hardy, 
evergreen  tea  bush.  The  various  qualities  are  the  result  of 
differences  in  the  size  of  the  leaf,  the  season  of  picking, 
and  the  method  of  preparing  and  mixing;  thus  the  differ- 
ences between  black  teas,  preferred  in  Great  Britain,  and 
green  teas,  preferred  in  the  United  States,  are  the  result  of 
different  methods  of  treating  the  leaf.  The  United  King- 
dom, which  is  the  largest  tea-drinking  nation,  buys  nearly 
half  of  all  export  teas,  its  stipply  coming  mainly  from 
Assam,  Bengal,  and  Ceylon.  Japan  produces  green  tea  for 
the  most  part,  and  the  crop  is  largely  exported  to  the 
United  States,  which  also  buys  much  tea   from  Formosa 


72 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  China  (p.  75).  The  cacao  tree  (Fig.  46)  grows  chief- 
ly in  tropical  America,  and  Ecuador  is  the  largest  source 
of  supply.  Its  most  imj)ortant  product  is  chocolate,  made 
from  the  large  nutritive  seeds,  which  are  roasted,  crushed, 
and  flavored  ;  the  decoction  cocoa,  a  wholesome  and  nutri- 
tious beverage,  is  valued  in  many  lands.  Nearly  all  the 
cacao  imported  into  the  United  States  is  the  crude  product, 
and  it  is  manufactured  here  into  chocolate  and  cocoa. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones 
(Fig.  35).  The  many  gradations  in  its  quality  are  due  to 
differences  in  climate  and  soil.  The  so-called  Havana  to- 
bacco of  Cuba,  for  example,  is  famous  for  its  aroma  and  is 
used  only  for  cigars ;  the  mild  tobacco  of  north  and  cen- 
tral Europe  is  best  adapted  for  the  pipe ;  the  fine,  bright 
leaf  of  Sumatra  is  largely  used  as  wrappers  for  Western- 
made  cigars ;  European  Turkey  and  Anatolia  grow  a  yellow 
leaf  with  a  peculiar  aroma,  used  in  the  best  qualities  of 
Turkish  and  Egyptian  cigarettes ;  Mexico  and  Brazil  raise 
excellent  tobacco,  and  India  is  the  second  largest  produ- 
cer.   Most  cigars  and  the  best  cigarettes  are  made  by  hand, 

but  less  expensive  ciga- 
rettes, as  well  as  chew- 
ing and  smoking  tobacco 
and  snuff,  are  manufac- 
tured by  highly  perfect- 
ed machinery. 

The  United  States  is 
the  largest  tobacco  grower 
(Fig.  47).    It  is  grown  in 
many  States,  from  south- 
ern Wisconsin,  which  pro- 
duces a  large  crop,  to  Lou- 
isiana,  which  raises   the 
famous  perique.     The  largest  tobacco  area,  about  600  miles 
long  and  400  broad,  extends  from  Kentucky  to  Marjdand, 
and  from  central  Ohio  to  Xorth  Carolina.     Most  of  the  ex- 


FiG.  47.— Tobacco  in  the  United  States. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  73 

port  manufacturing  tobaccos  (chewing,  smoking,  and  snuff 
tobaccos)  are  raised  in  this  area ;  but  most  of  the  leaf  used 
for  making  domestic  cigars  is  grown  in  the  more  northern 
States.  Cigarettes,  chewing  and  smoking  tobaccos  and 
snulf  are  manufactured  in  large  factories,  the  great  centers 
of  the  industry  being  Richmond,  Petersburg,  and  Lynch- 
burg, Va.,  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  Durham,  N.  C.  Eich- 
mond,  in  the  heart  of  the  rich  tobacco  district,  with  easy 
access  by  water  and  rail  to  the  coast,  is  the  chief  tobacco 
city  of  the  country,  and  exports  three  fifths  of  the  manu- 
factured tobacco  sent  to  foreign  markets.  Cigars  are  made 
in  thousands  of  factories,  large  and  small,  scattered  all  over 
the  country.  Much  Havana  leaf  is  imported,  and  though 
its  manufacture  is  widely  distributed,  the  largest  center 
of  its  use  is  Key  West,  Fla.,  where  native  Cubans  make 
Key  West  cigars  under  climatic  conditions  most  nearly  ap- 
proaching those  of  Cuba.  The  prevailing  humidity  and 
warmth  in  Cuba  promote  not  only  the  growing  but  also  the 
manufacturing  of  tobacco.  Few  cigars  are  exported,  but  a 
large  amount  of  unmanufactured  leaf  is  sold  in  Europe 
and  Canada  (p.  75),  and  important  quantities  of  tobacco 
manufactures  are  sent  to  British  Australasia,  north  Europe, 
Japan,  and  China.  Owing  to  the  extensive  importation  of 
Havana  leaf  and  cigars,  Cuban  and  Sumatran  leaf,  and  Egyp- 
tian cigarettes,  the  tobacco  exports  are  smaller  than  the 
imports. 

Hay  is  one  of  the  largest  products  of  the  country.  Its 
value  is  equal  to  that  of  the  wheat,  or  four  fifths  that  of 
the  corn  crop.  It  is  most  important  in  the  cattle-raising 
States  of  the  corn  belt  and  California,  and  in  the  dairying 
States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  Some  baled  hay  is 
sent  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  other  countries. 


CHAPTEE   IX 

THE    UNITED    STATHS-iContinued) 

Animal  Food  Products  and  the  Trade  in  them; 
ALSO  THE  Horse,  Whales,  Sponges,  and  Furs 

Domestic  animals  are  raised  for  food  in  largest  numbers 
where  land  is  cheap  and  pastui'e  abundant.  Cheai)  pasturage 
therefore  largely  determines  the  sources  of  meat  supply. 
Land  is  costly  and  animal-raising  expensive  where  popula- 
tion is  dense  and  industries  well  developed;  such  regions 
therefore  depend  for  much  of  their  animal  food  upon  dis- 
tant lands.  Thus  the  chief  sources  of  supply  for  a  large 
part  of  Europe  are  America  and  Australia.  But  it  would 
not  be  worth  while  to  carry  meat  far  from  the  cheap  pas- 
tures if  it  could  not  be  kept  from  spoiling.  Without 
means  of  preserving  meat  the  vast  areas  of  grazing  lands 
in  the  interior  of  the  continents  would  have  no  importance 
in  the  fresh  meat  trade. 

The  world's  meat  trade  has  been  greatly  extended  by  pro- 
cesses for  preserving  flesh.  It  is  practicable  by  means  of 
these  expedients  to  send  meat  to  markets  that  are  thou- 
sands of  miles  away.  Meat  is  preserved  either  by  refriger- 
ation, canning,  salting,  pickling,  smoking,  or  sun-drying. 
The  resulting  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  the  life  of  the 
minute  organisms  that  cause  putrefaction.  Meat  has  been 
refrigerated  since  1875,  by  freezing  or  chilling  in  the  ice 
chambers  of  storage  houses  or  on  cars  or  on  shipboard ;  or 
by  allowing  compressed  air  to  expand  in  the  meat  rooms, 
the  air  being  thus  reduced  in  temperature  to  any  desired 
degree.  Slaughtered  beeves  are  sent  from  the  United 
76 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


Y7 


States  to  Europe  iu  chilled  rooms,  freezing  not  being 
necessary  on  the  Atlantic  voyage,  though  essential  in  cross- 
ing the  tropics  from  South  America  and  Australia. 

Cattle  are  raised  in  the  United  States  chiefly  for  food. 
In  India,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  raised  more  for  draft 
purposes  and  hides  than  for  food ;  and  hides  and  tallow  are 
the  main  products  of  the  industry  iu  parts  of  south  Eussia, 
South  Africa,  and  Argentina.  The  abundance  of  herbage 
and  grains  and  the  healthful  climate  provide  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  cattle-raising  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  herds  are  almost  wholly  free  from  diseases.  The 
result  is  that  the  United  States  raises  twice  as  many  cattle 
as  any  other  country  except  India,  and  nearly  all  of  them 
are  fatted  for  slaughter  or  kept  for  the  dairy  industry. 
Oxen  for  draft  purposes  have  greatly  declined  in  number. 


Fig.  48. 


The  main  sources  of  beef  cattle  are  the  corn  belt  and 
range  states  (Fig.  48).  A  farm  of  IGO  acres  in  the  corn 
belt  will  supply  enough  forage  and  grain  to  send  to  market 


78  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

several  times  as  many  fat  cattle  as  can  be  raised  on  the  same 
area  in  the  range  or  ranch  states  of  the  Great  Plains,  which, 
however,  have  an  abundance  of  nourishing  grasses,  when 
not  overstocked,  to  produce  healthy  and  superior  beeves. 
About  1860,  settlers  along  the  streams  began  to  turn  their 
stock  out  to  graze  on  the  subarid  plains  with  such  profit- 
able results  that  large  companies  were  formed  to  raise 
millions  of  cattle.  The  poorly  watered  plains  thus  became 
a  source  of  national  wealth.  Great  areas  were  stocked  with 
the  longhorn  Texas  cattle  of  Spanish  origin,  but  better 
animals  were  finally  introduced,  to  the  great  improvement 
of  range  cattle. 

Most  of  the  live  beef  cattle  sent  to  market  are  fattened 
in  the  corn  belt  or  Eastern  states.  Many  are  shipped  to 
the  large  towns  of  the  country  and  to  Europe.  The  United 
Kingdom  buys  most  of  the  live  cattle  exports  (p.  90). 
Before  1875  her  entire  foreign  supply  of  live  cattle  came 
from  Holland,  Germany,  and  other  European  countries ;  but 
the  United  States  noAv  furnishes  nearly  three  fourths,  and 
Canada  and  Argentina  the  remainder.  Live  animals  sent  to 
Europe  require  good  food,  care,  and  comfort  on  shipboard, 
or  they  do  not  arrive  in  good  condition.  Very  few  live  hogs 
are  exported,  and  not  many  sheep,  except  to  the  United 
Kingdom  (p.  90). 

A  large  part  of  the  dressed  beef  comes  from  the  range 
states.  The  cattle  are  shipped  to  the  mammoth  slaughter- 
ing establishments  of  the  West  (Fig.  48),  and  the  meat  is 
forwarded  in  refrigerated  cars  to  many  hundreds  of  towns 
and  cities,  where  it  is  placed  in  cold  storage  and  thence  dis- 
tributed to  consumers.  In  this  way,  for  example,  150,000 
summer  boarders  in  the  Catskill  Mountains  have  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  fresh  beef.  The  export  trade  in  refrigerated 
beef  is  nearly  two  thirds  as  large  as  the  live  beef  export 
trade,  and  the  United  Kingdom  buys  nearly  all  of  it.  Beef 
canning  began  on  a  large  scale  in  1879,  upon  the  perfecting 
of   a  sure  method  of   hermetically  sealing   tins ;   but   the 


THE   OLD    WAT. 


THE   NEW    WAY. 

BUTTEE   MAKING. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  79 

canned  beef  and  salt  or  pickled  beef  trades  (beef  packing) 
have  largely  declined  with  the  growth  of  the  refrigerated 
beef,  industry. 

Most  of  the  dairy  products  are  consumed  at  home  (Fig. 
48).  The  shorthorn  and  other  of  the  best  milking  breeds 
of  Europe  have  been  largely  imported  to  improve  our  dairy 
stock.  Since  1860  a  great  impetus  has  been  given  to  dairy- 
ing (1)  by  the  establishment  of  cheese  and  butter  factories, 
which  make  superior  and  more  uniform  products ;  and  (2) 
by  the  invention  of  the  centrifugal  machine  for  separating 
cream  from  milk,  which  reduced  the  cost  of  butter-making. 
The  greatest  production  of  butter  and  cheese  is  in  the  dairy 
states  of  the  West  (Fig.  48),  where  the  direct  consumption 
of  milk  is  not  so  large  as  in  the  Eastern  states,  as  the 
density  of  population  is  smaller.  Most  of  the  factories, 
therefore,  are  in  the  West.  Exports  have  declined  in  recent 
years,  owing  to  former  shipments  of  inferior  products  and 
partly  to  the  vast  development  of  dairying  in  Canada, 
which  is  the  largest  cheese  exporter  in  the  world.  The  ex- 
port of  butter,  once  confined  to  neighboring  countries,  has, 
tbrough  refrigeration,  become  world-wide,  but  our  country 
has  not  yet  given  sufficient  attention  to  this  trade  to  com- 
mand an  important  part  of  it.  Denmark  exports  three 
times  as  much  butter  and  cheese  as  the  United  States  sends 
abroad.  A  large  quantity  of  the  finest  cheeses  of  Europe 
are  imported,  most  of  them  from  Switzerland,  Italy,  France, 
and  the  Netherlands.  The  milk  yield  is  about  83  gallons 
a  year  j9er  capita^  and  a  considerable  part  of  it  is  sold  direct 
to  the  consumer,  the  largest  trade  lieing  in  the  Eastern 
states. 

Oleomargarine,  a  substitute  for  butter,  prepared  from 
various  animal  fats,  is  an  increasing  nKinufacture,  and  is 
also  exported  to  some  extent.  It  may  be  sold  only  under 
its  own  name.  Animal  tallow  is  the  solid  fat  of  ruminant 
animals,  commercially  florived  almost  wholly  from  oxen  and 
sheep.     The  best  quality  is   used    for  candles   and   otber 


80 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


grades  for  soap-making,  leather-dressing,  lubricants,  etc. 
Nearly  all  the  export  tallow  of  the  United  States  goes  to 
Europe,  the  United  Kingdom  taking  more  than  a  third  of 
it  (p.  91). 

About  one  third  of  the  swine  in  the  world  are  raised  in  the 
United  States  (Fig.  29).  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Eussia  are  the  next  largest  producers,  but  their  combined 
product  is  less  than  that  of  this  country.  More  than  one 
third  of  the  corn  crop  is  turned  into  hog  products  (Fig.  49). 
Hogs  are  the  staple'  otf  the  meat-packing  industry,  which 


Fig.  49. 


is  associated  at  the  slaughtering  centers  with  the  killing, 
dressing,  and  shipping  of  cattle  and  sheep;  but  as  beef- 
packing  has  declined  (p.  79),  the  industry  chiefly  relates  to 
hogs.  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha  are  the  largest 
centers  for  the  slaughter  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and 
the  packing  of  hog  products,  because  they  are  most  con- 
veniently situated  to  receive  cattle  and  sheep  from  the 
ranges,  and  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  from  thousands  of  farms 


THE  UNITED  STATES  gl 

in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley.  They  control  the  meat 
trade  of  the  country,  though  a  great  many  smaller  cities 
slaughter  for  local  consumption.  The  preparation  of  the 
meat  for  market  is  largely  assisted  by  machinery  at  a  great 
saving  of  time,  labor,  and  expense.  As  the  hogs  are  killed, 
one  set  of  men  prepare  the  animals  for  the  chill  rooms  at 
the  rate  of  twenty  a  minute.  Eefrigeration  has  made  the 
packing  season  twelve  months  long,  and  summer-cured 
meat  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  killed  in  winter. 
Little  goes  to  waste.  Hair  is  sold  for  mixing  mortar,  bones 
are  carbonized  and  sold  to  sugar  refiners  or  turned  into  a 
fertilizer ;  sinews  are  used  for  glue,  small  bones  for  knife 
handles,  and  intestines  for  sausage  casings.  Sausages  are 
made  in  most  cities  and  towns,  pork  and  beef  mixed  being 
the  chief  ingredients.  Europe  buys  most  of  the  fresh  pork, 
lard,  ham,  and  bacon  exported,  and  the  United  Kingdom  is 
in  each  case  the  largest  consumer  (p.  91).  Lard,  hog  fat 
expressed  irom  the  tissues  containing  it,  is  among  the 
largest  exports  of  hog  products.  North  America  chiefly 
the  West  Indies,  buys  most  of  the  salt  and  pickled  pork 
sent  out  of  the  country. 

Sheep  are  raised  in  the  United  States  more  for  wool  than 
mutton  (Fig.  29).  The  value  of  the  sheep  sold  for  food  and 
pelt  is  about  one  half  that  of  the  wool  jiroduced.  Wool 
growing  is  most  important  in  the  Eastern  ^nd  central  states. 
It  is  also  a  large  industry  on  the  plains,  where  sheep  have 
partly  supplanted  cattle.  They  graze  so  closely  as  to  leave 
no  feed  for  cattle,  and  this  fact  occasions  many  conflicts 
between  cattle  and  sheep  interests.  Several  million  sheep 
are  slaughtered  every  year  at  the  packing  centers  West  and 
East,  and  the  dressed  mutton,  distributed  in  refrigerating 
cars,  is  practically  all  consumed  at  home. 

The  horse  is  bred  chiefly  for  farm  work  and  other  traction 

(Fig.  29).    It  was  brought  to  America  by  the  early  explorers, 

and  has  been  much  improved  by  admixture  witli  Euro])ean 

draft  breeds,  as  the  Clydesdale,  Percheron,  and  Norman. 

6 


82  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  trotting  horse  or  roadster  and  the  thoroughbred, 
evolved  for  racing  by  long  and  careful  breeding,  are  raised 
on  many  stock  farms.  Horses,  till  1894,  were  exported  to 
Europe  almost  solely  for  breeding  and  the  race  track,  but 
there  has  since  been  a  growing  export  of  draft  horses  to 
European  cities,  Great  Britain  buying  about  one  half  and 
Germany  one  sixth  of  the  shipments  (p.  90).  The  breeding 
and  use  of  mules  are  mostly  confined  to  the  Southern  and 
some  Western  states.  War  in  foreign  countries  stimulates 
the  export  of  mules.  Thus  the  Spanish  Government  be- 
came for  a  time  the  largest  buyer  of  mules  after  the  Cuban 
revolt  of  1895.  Horsehide  makes  good  leather,  and  is  used 
for  razor  strops,  shoe  uppers,  and  gloves.  The  supply  is 
chiefly  from  American  cities.  Horsehair  is  used  in  up- 
holstery; carcasses  are  turned  into  fertilizers.  Horse 
meat  has  been  sold  in  Paris  since  1870  at  half  the  price  of 
beef,  and  there  is  a  small  consumption  in  Belgium  and 
Gerinany.  Mare's  milk  is  used  as  food  in  inner  Asia  by 
Mongolians  and  other  nomad  peoples.  Kumiss,  fermented 
mare's  milk,  is  a  common  beverage  in  the  same  regions  and 
is  imported  into  Western  countries. 

Poultry  and  eggs  figure  largely  in  international  trade. 
The  United  Kingdom  buys,  in  about  twenty  countries,  40 
per  cent,  or  1,500,000,000  a  year,  of  the  eggs  consumed. 
Eussia,  the  largest  exporter  of  eggs,  sold  1,475,000,000  in 
1896,  of  which  one  fifth  was  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
Japan  produces  few  eggs,  but  imports  many  from  China, 
where  they  are  very  cheap.  The  business  of  fattening 
chickens  for  the  British  market  is  of  great  value  in  north- 
ern France  and  Canada.  Eggs  are  exported  from  the 
United  States  in  important  but  variable  quantities.  The 
"home  supply  of  jDOultry  and  eggs  suffices  for  domestic  uses, 
though  many  fowls  for  breeding  are  imported. 

The  fishing  industries  are  mainly  near  the  coasts  of  the 
cooler  northern  seas  (p.  91).  Here  the  cod,  herring,  shad,  sal- 
mon, and  other  varieties  swarm  in  great  numbers  to  spawn 


THE   UNITED  STATES  83 

in  shallow  sea  waters  or  in  estuaries  and  rivers ;  edible  fish 
are  also  found  in  nearly  all  salt  and  fresh  waters  having 
suitable  temperature  and  food  resources.  Each  nation,  by 
international  agreement,  reserves  for  its  own  fishermen  all 
fishing  rights  in  the  sea  within  three  miles  of  its  coasts ; 
outside  of  this  limit  the  sea  fisheries  are  open  to  the  world. 
Cured  fish,  preserved  by  drying,  salting,  or  smoking,  has  the 
advantage  of  small  bulk  and  highly  nutritive  qualities,  but 
the  demand  for  fresh  fish  is  also  constant.  Fresh  fish  had 
formerly  to  be  sold  as  soon  as  it  reached  market  or  it  be- 
came worthless.  This  waste  has  been  stopped  by  refriger- 
ation. The  largest  sea  fisheries  are  those  of  the  Atlantic 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  with  the  neighboring  coasts  of 
Canada  and  Newfoundland  (Fig.  50)  and  those  of  western 
Europe  (Fig.  51). 

The  cod  is  commercially  the  most  important  of  fishes 
(p.  92).  XcTv^foundland,  Canada,  and  Xorway  export  great 
quantities  of  it,  salted,  to  many  lands,  and  particularly  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  southern  Europe  and 
Latin  America.  Its  liver  yields  a  valued  medicinal  oil. 
The  largest  cod  fisheries  are  on  the  Grand  Banks  of  New- 
foundland, whose  shallow  waters  abound  with  food  for  cod 
(Figs.  50  and  51).  Thousands  of  fishermen  from  New- 
foundland, Canada,  the  United  States,  and  France  ply  their 
vocation  in  small  sailing  vessels  on  the  foggy  banks,  catch- 
ing the  fish  by  hand  lines,  cleaning  and  salting  them  at  once 
and  drying  them  in  the  sun  on  platforms  after  the  return  to 
port.  They  are  sold  chiefly  in  this  form,  but  a  small  part 
of  the  salted  output  is  shredded  after  removing  the  bones, 
packed  in  small  boxes  and  sold  as  boneless  cod.  There  are 
also  inshore  cod  fisheries  near  the  British  American  and 
United  States  coasts,  those  along  our  New  England  shores 
supplying  most  of  the  fresh  cod  in  the  home  markets;  but 
the  inshore  fisheries  are  declining  in  importance.  Glouces- 
ter, the  largest  fishing  port  of  the  United  States,  supplies  a 
large  part  of  the  salted  cod  found  in  every  grocery  store  of 


84 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


the  country ;  practically  all  the  cod  entering  onr  ports  is 
consumed  at  home. 

Canned  salmon  is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.     The 
salmon  is  caught  in  seines  and  traps  in  the  rivers  which  it 


Fig.  50. — The  shad  (herring  family),  one  of  the  best  American  food  fishes,  is  found 
from  Florida  to  the  St.  Lawrenoe,  and  caught  in  stake  nets  and  seines  in  many 
rivers  which  it  ascends  in  the  spring  to  spawn.  The  shad  fisheries  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  its  tributaries  are  the  most  valuable,  yielding  nearly  half  the  product. 
The  Delaware  estuary,  and  the  Hudson.  Connecticut,  and  Kennebec  are  important 
shad  rivers.  Alewives  enter  many  rivers  from  Maine  to  Florida,  are  very  cheap, 
and  the  greater  part  are  salted  or  smoked.  The  highly-prized  bluefish  is  scat- 
tered widely  through  the  warmer  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Tndian  Oceans,  but  its 
chief  commercial  importance  is  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States. 
The  halibut,  a  very  large  fish,  is  caught  with  lines  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
but  mainly  on  the  Grand  Banks  in  winter  and  near  Greenland  and  Iceland.  The 
menhaden  is  used  very  little  for  food,  but  a  large  quantity  of  oil  and  fish  guano  is 
produced  from  it  in  factories  built  for  the  industry. 


ascends  to  spawn.     The  largest  salmon  fisheries  are  in  the 
Columbia  and  other  rivers  of  the  northwest  coast  of  the 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


85 


SEA  FISHERIES 

OF 

TVEST  EUROPE 


Fig.  51. 


United  States,  including  Alaska,  and  in  the  Fraser  and 
other  rivers  of  British  Columbia.  Most  of  it  is  cooked  and 
fanned,  though  it  is  also  refrigerated  and  delivered  fresh 
in  the  Eastern  markets.     The  canning  industry  in  Alaska, 


86  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  largest  in  the  world,  extends  to  Bering  Sea,  is  steadily 
growing,  and  in  twenty  years  over  600,000,000  pounds  of 
salmon  were  canned  there.  The  fish  is  also  largely  caught 
in  British,  Xorway,  Eussian  and  Japan  waters. 

The  herring  is  caught  in  close-meshed  nets  on  the  north- 
west shores  of  Europe  and  the  coast  of  Xorth  America 
from  Maine  to  Labrador  (Figs.  50  and  51).  Most  of  the 
Norway  and  British  product  is  sent  salted  to  the  Continent. 
In  America  the  herring  is  smoked,  pickled,  or  salted ;  and 
the  industry  is  large  on  the  Maine  coast,  whence  the  cured 
fish  are  sent  in  boxes  or  barrels  to  Boston,  Xew  York,  and 
Xorfolk  for  distribution.  Small  herrings,  called  "sar- 
dines," are  packed  in  oil.after  the  manner  of  the  true  sar- 
dine, one  of  the  most  important  food  fishes  of  south  and 
southwest  Europe.  Our  sardines  are  cheaper  than  the  im- 
ported article,  which  formerly  came  wholly  from  France. 
Three  quarters  of  them  are  now  from  the  Maine  herring 
fisheries.  The  mackerel  is  found  in  great  shoals  on  the 
coast  of  eastern  North  America  and  northwestern  Europe 
(Figs.  50  and  51).  Most  of  the  Xew  England  catch  is  salted, 
but  in  Europe  it  is  usually  eaten  fresh.  Spanish  mackerel 
is  procured  from  the  warmer  waters  of  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic  and  is  highly  esteemed. 

The  Great  Lakes  fisheries  are  west  of  Buffalo.  Lake 
Ontario  is  no  longer  a  factor.  The  whitefish  is  most 
valued,  and  two  thirds  of  the  catch  is  whitefish,  the  so- 
called  herring  trout,  and  sturgeon  from  which  American 
caviare  is  made.  Caviare  is  the  prepared  and  salted  roe  of 
several  species  of  sturgeons.  Its  manufacture  is  a  large 
industry  on  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas.  The  streams  and 
small  lakes  of  the  country  also  yield  an  abundance  of 
trout,  pickerel,  and  other  varieties. 

Most  of  our  fishery  products  are  consumed  at  home. 
Nearly  every  coast  town  is  a  fish  market;  and  though 
Billingsgate,  London,  is  the  largest  fish  market  in  the 
world,  no  foreign  market  offers  so  great  a  variety  as  New 


THE  UNITED  STATES  87 

York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Chicago,  which  receive 
and  distribute  salt  and  fresh  water  fish  from  all  the  coasts 
and  the  Great  Lakes.  Canned  salmon  is  the  largest  fish 
export  of  the  country,  and  many  sardines  from  the  Maine 
canneries  are  sent  to  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
Mackerel,  sardines,  and  herrings  are  the  imports  of  most 
importance,  but  the  country  supplies  most  of  its  fish  food. 

The  oyster  is  the  most  important  shell  food.  Shellfish 
thrive  best  in  warm  waters  and  in  the  north  temperate 
zone ;  are  most  abundant  in  quiet,  shallow  estuaries  or 
bays,  like  those  in  which  the  oyster  thrives  along  our 
Atlantic  coast  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia,  and  to  a 
smaller  extent  along  the  Gulf  coast.  These  oysters  are 
the  best  and  largest  in  the  world.  As  the  natural  supply 
does  not  keep  pace  with  the  growing  demand,  millions 
of  young  oysters  are  transplanted  to  private  beds  con- 
trolled by  companies,  and  in  this  way  oyster  culture  is 
being  extended  on  the  Atlantic  and  introduced  on  the 
California  and  Oregon  coasts.  Small  steamers  and  sail 
boats  anchor  over  the  beds  and  take  the  oysters  with 
"  tongs,"  or  dredges,  from  depths  of  ten  to  twenty-five  feet, 
where  they  lie  on  the  bottom,  fattening  on  the  food  that 
the  tides  bring  to  them.  The  Chesapeake  and  Long 
Island  beds  are  the  largest  sources  of  supply,  and  the  yield 
of  this  country  is  about  five  sixths  of  the  world's  oyster 
product  (p.  92).  In  the  nine  months  of  the  season,  begin- 
ning in  September,  oysters  are  sent  fresh  to  most  of  the 
markets.  Though  oyster  canning  has  been  largely  super- 
seded by  refrigeration,  many  cove  oysters  of  the  South- 
ern states  are  still  canned  in  Baltimore  and  elsewhere  and 
distributed  to  the  smaller  interior  towns.  The  increasing 
exports  are  shipped  between  September  and  April,  and 
Great  Britain  buys  about  3,000  barrels  a  week  in  the  season. 

The  lobster,  caught  in  baited  wicker  traps  from  Labra- 
dor to  Delaware,  and  also  along  the  northwest  European 
and  Mediterranean  coasts,  is  sent  to  market  alive  or  canned. 


88  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

New  England  waters  having  been  largely  depleted,  most 
of  our  canned  lobster  now  comes  from  Canada  and  New- 
foundland. At  low  tide  many  men  and  boys  dig  clams 
that  biiry  themselves  in  the  mud  flats  along  the  Xew  Eng- 
land and  Long  Island  coasts. 

The  sperm  and  right  whale  are  most  important  in  the 
whale  fisheries.  The  sperm  whale  supplies  the  best  grade 
of  whale  oil,  and  is  usually  caught  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  oceans.  Spermaceti,  a  pure  white  mass  from  which 
sperm  candles  and  ointments  are  made,  is  derived  from  the 
head  cavities  of  the  sperm  whale.  The  blubber  of  the 
right  or  Greenland  whale  yields  train  oil,  but  the  main  in- 
centive for  still  hunting  this  scarce  animal  is  whalebone, 
the  horny  fringe  attached  to  its  upper  Jaw,  Avorth  about 
$3.50  a  pound.  It  is  caught  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  near 
Bering  Strait  and  west  of  Greenland  by  a  few  San  Francisco 
and  Dundee  whalers.  Large  fortunes  were  once  made  in 
whaling,  but  the  industry  is  now  small,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  whales,  the  introduction  of  mineral  oils,  and  substitutes 
for  whalebone  such  as  steel,  celluloid,  and  rubber. 

The  sponge  of  commerce  is  the  fibrous  framework  re- 
maining after  the  fleshy  part  of  the  aquatic  organism  from 
which  it  is  derived  has  been  washed  away.  Most  sponges, 
and  those  of  the  best  quality,  come  from  a  depth  of  150  to 
200  feet  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic,  along  the  coasts 
from  Ceuta,  Morocco,  to  Trieste,  Austria.  In  deep  water 
they  are  procured  by  diving.  In  the  shallow  waters  of 
Florida  and  the  Bahamas  sponges  are  torn  from  the  bottom 
by  three-pronged  forks.  The  Florida  fishery  has  an  area  of 
3,000  square  miles,  with  Key  West  as  the  largest  center  of 
the  trade.  The  product  is  sent  in  bales  to  Xew  York  whole- 
salers. 

The  finest  furs  are  obtained  in  the  subpolar  and  polar 
regions.  In  those  cold  latitudes  Xature  provides  animals 
with  the  thickest  coverings.  Canada,  Russia,  and  Siberia 
are  the  largest  sources  of  the  most  valuable  furs.    In  Canada 


THE  UNITED  STATES  89 

and  Russia  the  supply  is  decreasing,  while  in  Siberia  the 
catch  of  sable,  otter,  red  fox,  and  other  furs  and  skins  has 
increased,  which  means  that  Siberia  is  now  the  least  hunted 
of  the  great  fur  fields. 

About  1,000,000  skins  of  the  Siberian  gray  squirrel, 
taken  every  year,  supply  most  of  the  squirrel  fur  used  in 
lining  cloaks.  Australia  and  Xew  Zealand  export  enormous 
numbers  of  rabbit  skins.  The  muskrat,  skunk,  raccoon, 
mink,  opossum,  marten,  sea  otter,  and  various  foxes  and 
bears  are  now  the  largest  source  of  American  furs  and 
skins.  Persian  lamb  skins  are  much  used  for  ladies'  jackets, 
and  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  the  Russian  and  Hud- 
son Bay  sable.  Several  kinds  of  monkey  skins,  together 
with  the  skins  of  lions,  tigers,  and  other  large  carnivora,  are 
the  contributions  of  subtropical  and  tropical  countries. 

The  seal  fur  has  long  been  the  most  useful  and  popular 
of  furs.  The  Alaskan  fur  seal  fisheries,  on  the  Pribylof 
Islands,  is  the  largest  source  of  supply,  though  now  greatly 
depleted.  The  males  are  killed  near  the  breeding  grounds. 
The  skins  are  then  salted,  dried,  baled,  and  shipped  to  San 
Francisco  and  thence  to  London,  where  the  long  hairs  are 
plucked,  the  fur  is  dyed,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  market. 
As  the  manufacture  is  mainly  carried  on  in  England,  much 
of  the  profits  of  these  seal  fisheries  go  to  that  country. 

Furs  are  collected  for  sale  to  manufacturers  at  several 
great  centers.  London  is  the  largest  fur  auction  market ; 
Leipzig  holds  spring  and  autumn  fairs,  when  German  wares 
are  exchanged  for  the  skins  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Turkey, 
the  advantage  of  this  market  being  its  convenient  position 
in  respect  of  the  sources  of  supply ;  the  great  Russian  mar- 
ket is  at  the  Xizhni  Novgorod  fair,  where  manufacturers 
buy  the  furs  of  north  Russia  and  Siberia.  Fur  garments 
are  more  in  demand  in  east  than  in  west  Europe,  where  the 
climate  is  milder. 

Fur  is  well  adapted  for  felting,  and  nine  tenths  of  the 
felt  hats  worn  in  the  United  States  are  made  from  the  fur 


I 


.JO  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

of  tlie  rabbit  and  hare ;  the  nutria  of  Argentina,  beaver, 
muskrat,  raccoon,  and  otter  are  also  used. 

The  fur  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  turn  out 
superior  products  to  the  value  of  about  120,000,000  a  year. 
More  than  half  of  the  business  is  centered  in  Xew  York 
city.  The  long,  cold  winters  of  Minnesota  stimulate  con- 
siderable manufactures  there.  Large  quantities  of  un- 
dressed furs,  which  are  on  the  free  list,  are  imported  for 
manufacture  in  this  country,  more  than  half  the  supply 
coming  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany ;  and  those 
countries,  with  France,  send  most  of  the  fur  manufactures. 

STATISTICS   FOR  THE   UNITED   STATES 

1870.  1891.  1899. 

Value   of   beeves   and   beef   products   exported 

(in  million  dollars) 6.2        65.9        70.3 

1850.        1872.        1880.        1890.        1894. 
Hogs  packed  in  millions 1.7        5.9        12       17.7        16 

Average  Annual  Value  of  Animals  exported  in  Five  Years, 
1894-1898 
Catth 
TO  Srs.P-cent.  To  S^.l  Per  cent. 

United  Kingdom...  33.1      95.84  I  France 0.2  .75 

Canada 0.3  .99  1      Total  exports  ...  34 . 5     100.00 

Horses 

United  Kingdom  . .     1.7      48.83  I  Germany 0.6      16.20 

Canada 0.6      18.19  1      Total  exports  .. .     3.5     100.00 

Sheep 
United  Kingdom  .  .     1.6      85.97  |      Total  exports  .. .     1.8     100.00 

Average  Annual  Value  of  Animal  Products  exported  in  Five 
Years,  1894-1898 
Butter 
TO  d^'S.  Per  cent.  To  T^.  Per  cent. 

United  Kingdom  . .     1.6      56.76  {  Germany 0.1        5.37 

Canada 0.2        7.55  1      Total  exports. . .     2.8     100.00 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


91 


Cheese 

To  S'^rs.  Per  cent.  To 

United  Kingdom ...     3.9       79 .  06  |  British  West  Indies    0 .  08       1 .  58 

Canada 0.8       16.29  |      Total  exports  .. .     4.99  100.00 


Million  u„,  „„„. 
dollars.  Per  cent. 


Hides  and  Skins  other  than  Furs 

Canada 0.9      36.88  I  France 0.9      20.08 

Germany 0.6      25.36  |      Total  exports  .. .     2.4     100.00 

Canned  Beef 

United  Kingdom ..  .     3.2      65.53  I  France 0.2        5.08 

Germany 0.5        9.55  |      Total  exports  .. .     4.9     100.00 

Fresh  Beef 
United  Kingdom...   19.5       99.81  |      Total  exports  .. .   19.6     100.00 

Salted  or  Pickled  Beef 

United  Kingdom.  .  .     1.6      49.55  I  British  West  Indies     0.2        6.71 
Germany 0.3       10.64  1      Total  exports  .. .     3.4     100.00 


United  Kingdom ...     0.9 

France 0.4 

Netherlands 0.3 


Talloiv 

36.34 
14.57 
12.02 


Germany 0.3       11.55 

Italy 0.08      3.24 

Total  exports  ...     2.5     100.00 


United  Kingdom ...  30 . 1 

Belgium 2.2 

Germany 1.5 


Bacon 

79.22    Brazil 1.2  3.27 

5.94    Netherlands 0.8  2.08 

3 .  96        Total  exports  ...  38 . 0  100 .  00 


United  Kingdom . 
Belgium 


Hams 

11.0      80.55  I  Cuba 

0.9        6.31  I      Total  exports 


0.4        3.18 
13.7    100.00 


Lard 


United  Kingdom ...   13.0 

Germany 9.0 

Netherlands 3.1 

Belgium 2.2 


36.32  ! 

25 

33 

8 

56 

6 

Uh 

France 2.0  5.39 

Cuba 1.9  5.39 

Brazil 1.0  2.74 

Total  exports  . . .  35.9  100.00 


92 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Annual  Yield  of  Fisheries  (in  Million  Dollars) 


United  States 43 

United  Kingdom.  .  32 

Japan 26 

Russia 22 

France 21 


Canada 19 

Norway 8 

Newfoundland..   6.6 
Portugal 3.4 


Spain 2.5 

Sweden 2.3 

Holland 2.2 

Italy 1.2 


Annual  Value  of  the  Cod  Catch  (in  Million  Dollars) 

Newfound-    r.„„„,,„     United     p-anpp       ^ireat      Norway  and    tt„ii„„^     xnfal 
land.        t-anada.    gtateg_     !>  ranee.     Bntain.         Sweden.       iioiiana.     lotai. 


5.0 


3.8 


2.7 


2.6 


1.5 


0.3 


17.7 


Annual  Value  of  the  Oyster  Fisheries  (in  Million  Dollars) 


United  States. 
30 


Great  Britain. 
3 


France. 
2 


Other  countries. 
1 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    UNITE3D    STATES-^Contimied) 

Vegetable  axd  Aximal  Fibers— Oils  from  the  Seed 
OF  Fiber  Plants 

Cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  flax  provide  clothing  for  the  larger 
part  of  mankind.  Most  of  the  cloths  worn  or  used  are 
made  of  cotton  or  wool.  All  these  fibers  compete  with 
one  another  in  trade.  An  unusual  consumption  of  one 
fiber  affects  trade  in  the  others,  but  the  competition  is 
mainly  between  cotton  and  wool  and  cotton  and  flax. 
Cotton  is  the  white,  soft  fiber  that  surrounds  the  seeds  of 
the  cotton  plant  (Fig.  35).     It  is  easily  and  cheaply  grown 


UNITED  STATES 

INDIA 

CENTRAL  &  EAST  ASIA 

EGYPT 

MEXICO 

TURKEY  &  PERSIA 

BRAZIL  (export) 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


) 

1  1  1  1  1  1  i 

lono 

M    1    1    1    1    1    1    1    1   1 

2000 

1    1    1    M    1    1   1    1 

3000 

1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

J_L 

4000 

1  1   1  1  1  1 

1  1  1 

")000 

J 

— -^ 

■— 

-  —  — 

^^M^aa 

- 

-  — 

— 

— 

^^ 

^^ 

la 

'         Fkj 
,              I 
1               I 

52.— WorldV 
'iibroken  line 
rokcn  line  sli 

profliictioTi  of  cotton,  in 
shows  average  yield  for  fi 

)\VH  yiclil  ill  WOr>. 

million 
•e  year.'!, 

poii 
18U0 

nds 
'94 

in  tropical  and,  best  of  all,  in  warm  temperate  climates. 
The  plant  requires  a  long,  hot  summer  and  abundant  rain- 
fall.    On  account  of  its  cheapness  and  other  advantages, 

93 


04 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


cotton  has  won  the  first  place  among  textile  staples.  Civil- 
ized nations  now  use  for  clothing  five  times  as  much  cotton 
as  was  used  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
nearly  half  the  people  of  the  world  are  supplied  with  cot- 
ton goods  made  by  modern  machinery  (Fig.  52).  Though 
widely  cultivated  in  America,  Africa,  and  Asia,  only  a  few 
lands  send  raw  cotton  to  the  great  manufacturing  coun- 
tries. 

About  three  fourths  of  the  raw  cotton  is  raised  in  the 
United  States  (Fig.  53).  It  is  the  great  product  of  the 
cotton    belt    in   the   southeastern   part    of   the    country. 


UPLAND  CROP  OF  1898. 
IN  MILLtON  BALES. 
TOTAL  CROP  8.48 


Fig.  .5.3.— Cotton  in  the  United  States. 


Xegroes  are  most  numerous  in  the  cotton  states  because 
the  larger  part  of  the  African  slaves  brought  to  the  Union 
were  imported  to  work  in  the  cotton  fields.  The  value  of 
the  crop  is  exceeded  only  by  that  of  wheat  and  maize, 
and  in  some  years  it  is  worth  more  than  the  wheat  cro^.. 
The  varieties  of  cotton  best  known  in  the  world's  markets 


THE   UNITED  STATES  95 

are  (1)  our  long  staple  sea-island  cotton,  grown  on  the 
islands  and  coasts,  particularly  between  Charleston  and 
Savannah,  and  used  for  thread,  laces,  and  fine  cambrics ; 
and  (2)  the  shorter  staple,  upland  cotton,  grown  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  cotton  belt.  A  large  part  of  the  machine- 
made  cotton  fabrics  of  all  countries  are  manufactured 
from  this  upland  cotton,  which  is  known  abroad  as  Ameri- 
can upland,  or  simply  American  cotton.  Its  price  in 
Liverpool,  the  largest  foreign  market  for  it,  regulates  the 
price  of  cotton  throughout  the  world.  The  northeast  coast 
of  Brazil  sends  to  Europe  much  cotton  of  longer  staple 
than  American  upland.  Other  raw  cottons  are  used  in 
America  and  westej|i  Europe  only  for  special  purposes,  as 
Egyptian  cotton,  wim  long,  fine  fiber,  for  thread,  fine  yarns, 
underwear,  and  hosiery  ;  and  the  rough  Peruvian  cotton, 
mixed  with  wool,  in  the  manufacture  of  underwear,  hosiery, 
and  cloths.  The  cotton  of  India  is  too  shart  to  equal 
American  cotton  for  spinning  fine  yarns. 

Cotton  is  taken  from  the  field  to  the  cotton  gin,  the 
great  invention  of  Eli  Whitney  (1793),  which  stimulated 
cotton  raising  by  doing  away  with  the  slow  and  costly  hand 
process  of  freeing  the  fiber  from  the  seed.  It  is  then 
packed  in  bales,  the  average  weight  of  which  is  430  pounds, 
and  forwarded  to  market  towns,  most  of  them  in  the  in- 
terior (Fig.  53),  where  brokers  sell  it  on  commission  to  the 
agents  of  home  and  foreign  buyers.  Cotton  bought  for 
export  is  sent  at  once  to  the  seaports,  where  the  wharves 
are  filled  with  cotton  bales  from  September  to  January. 
Galveston  begins  to  move  cotton  first  because  its  supply 
comes  from  the  Texas  fields,  where  the  season  is  early,  but 
in  October  the  crop  pours  into  New  Orleans,  Savannah,  and 
other  ports  by  thousands  of  bales  a  day.  Cotton  for  New 
England  and  Canadian  mills  is  sent  by  land  and  sea  in  about 
equal  parts.  As  cotton  mills  are  rapidly  increasing  in  the 
southern  states,  l.ooo  ono  or  mm-p  bales  a  year  are  retained 
.  here  for  manuf ;• 


C)(5  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Liverpool  and  Manchester,  the  largest  European  cotton 
markets,  buy  one  half  of  oar  export  raw  cotton.  Bremen 
is  the  mosl>  important  of.  the  Continental  markets,  but 
Havre,  Genoa,  and  Trieste  also  do  a  large  trade  (p.  105). 
Raw  cotton  is  admitted  free  of  duty  in  England,  Germany, 
and  France,  but  is  dutiable  in  Russia  and  Italy. 

One  third  of  the  home  cotton  crop  is  made  into  fabrics  in 
the  United  States.  Cotton  spinning  and  weaving— great 
household  industries  for  centuries— were  mainly  transferred 
to  factories  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury (1)  by  the  invention  of  the  "spinning  mule,"  enabling 
one  operator  to  attend  to  hundreds  of  spindles;  (2)  the 
power  loom,  which  abolished  hand  weaving;  and  (3)  the 
application  of  steam  to  manufacturing.  A  loom  in- 
troduced since  1890  feves  half  the  labor  cost  of  weaving. 
Most  of  these  great  inventions  for  making  cotton  fabrics 
\^re  later  introduced  into  wool  manufactures.  The  prices 
of  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics  have  been  declining  for  thirty 
years,  owing  to  improved  labor-saving  machinery  and  to 
the'declinain  the  price  of  wool. 

'  In  spinning,  the  thread  or  yarn  is  made  by  drawing  out 
and  twisting  the  fiber.  One  operator  often  attends  two 
machines,  ^ach  of  which  is  spinning  many  threads.  Tiie 
yarn  is  then  taken  to  the  loom  for  weaving.  The  threads 
extending  lengthwise  of  the  piece  are  called  the  warp,  and 
those  across  it,  the  woof.  The  woof  threads  are  woven  into 
the  warp  by  means  of  shuttles,  which  are  driven  rapidly 
back  and  forth  between  the  warp  threads. 

Coarse  and  medium  cotton  fabrics  are  in  largest  demand 
in  the  domestic  market.  These  goods,  therefore,  such  as 
calico,  sheetings,  shirtings,  gingham,  and  cotton  flannel, 
are  the  largest  product  of  American  cotton  mills.  The 
Xew  England  states,  with  Massachusetts  leading,  are  the 
largest  center  of  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  (Fig.  53),  and 
their  mills  consume  about  one  ^  '^  of  the  total  crop. 
Many  large  towns  were  built  up  England  by 


THE  UNITED  STATES  97 

cotton  industry,  nearly  all  of  them  on  streams,  whose  water 
power  was  utilized,  as  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Manchester,  and 
Nashua  on  the  Merrimac ;  Lewiston  on  the  Androscoggin  ; 
Augusta  and  Waterville  on  the  Kennebec  ;  Biddeford  on 
the  Saco ;  Fall  Eiver  on  the  river  of  that  name  ;  and  AVoon- 
socket  on  the  Blackstone ;  but  many  cotton  mills  now  use 
steam  exclusively.  Coal,  cotton,  and  other  supplies  may 
be  taken  to  Fall  Eiver,  New  Bedford,  Providence,  and 
other  'mill  centers  on  or  near  Narragansett  Bay  at  less 
cost  than  to  points  in  the  interior,  and  these  advantages 
have  made  Fall  Eiver  the  largest  center  of  the  cotton  in- 
dustry". 

The  Southern  states  trebled  the  capacity  of  their  cotton 
mills  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  About 
300  mills  are  situated  near  or  in  the  cotton  fields,  mainly 
along  the  fall  line  (p.  54),  from  Virginia  to  Alabama,  but 
many  also  are  in  towns  nearer  the  sea.  They  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  raw  cotton  at  their  doors,  cheap  fuel  and  labor, 
and  find  home  markets  for  practically  all  their  calico  and 
other  cotton  products.  Many  knitting  and  woolen  mills 
scattered  among  the  cotton  factories  supply  hosiery,  un- 
derwear, woolen  blankets,  cloths,  and  carpets.  Goods  for 
which  Southern  merchants  formerly  went  to  New  York  are 
now  sold  to  them  from  the  local  mills,  and  Southern  cotton 
fabrics,  as  well  as  raw  cotton,  are  shipped  direct  from  the 
South  to  China  and  Japan. 

The  export  trade  in  cotton  fabrics  (p.  105)  is  constantly 
growing,  but  is  still  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  which  sells  to  foreign  lands  eight  to  ten 
times  the  value  of  cotton  goods  that  the  United  States  ex- 
ports. About  one  half  of  all  the  raw  cotton  exports  of 
the  world  are  sent  to  the  British  Isles,  because  that  country 
has  had  the  longest  and  largest  development  in  cotton  man- 
ufactures. China,  the  largest  buyer  of  American  cotton 
cloths,  takes  nearly  half  of  our  exports,  most  of  them  going 
to  Shanghai  for  distribution  in  the  Yangtse  valley  and  the 


98 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


northeast  provinces.  About  one  half  of  the  manufactured 
cotton  imports  are  laces,  edgings,  and  embroideries. 

The  price  of  wool  since  1860  has  declined  in  all  markets. 

This  is  due  to  the  vast  increase  in  the  number  of  sheep  in 
Australasia,  South  Africa,  and  Argentina,  where  pasturage 
is  very  cheap,  and  winter  feeding  is  rarely  required,  and 
also  on  the  free  grazing  lands  of  our  western  plains  (Fig. 
29).     The   world's  wool  clip   has  increased  150  per  cent. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 
AUSTRALASIA 
RIVER  PLATE 
UNITED  STATES 
UNITED  KINGDOM 
CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE 
OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  54. — World's  production  of 
wool,  in  million  pounds.  The 
unbroken  line  shows  the  crop 
of  1880.  The  broken  line  shows 
the  crop  of  1898. 


since  1875.  The  consequent  reduced  price  of  wool  and  the 
diminished  cost  of  manufacturing  processes  have  greatly 
cheapened  woolen  fabrics  (Fig.  54). 

The  United  States,  originating  a  wool  fiber  that  is 
mainly  Spanish  merino,  has  long  been  noted  for  strong  staple 
fabrics,  for  which  this  material  is  well  adapted.  More  than 
three  fourths  of  the  sheep  in  the  country  are  pure  or  mixed 
merino.  The  merino,  originating  in  Spain  from  a  cross  of 
African  and  native  stock,  is  noted  for  the  fineness  and 
length  of  its  wool.  American  flocks  supply  few  superfine 
wools,  and  these  qualities  are  mainly  imported.  As  the 
domestic  wool  clip  is  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  manu- 
facturers, who  work  up  350,000,000  to  500,000,000  pounds 
a  year,  about  one  fifth  of  the  quantity  consumed  is  im- 
ported. Xo  manufacturing  countries  produce  the  amount 
of  wool  they  need,  and  their  deficiency  is  mainly  supplied 


The  united  states  99 

by  Australia,  Xew  Zealand,  Argentina,  and  Soutli  Africa. 
The  larger  part  of  the  wools  brought  into  the  United 
States  are  made  into  carpets,  the  United  Kingdom  and 
China  supplying  half  of  the  carpet  wools,  while  Australia, 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  Argentina  send  nearly  all  of  the 
imported  cloth  wools.  Boston  is  the  largest  wool  market, 
because  it  is  the  most  convenient  center  of  distribution  to 
the  mill  towns  of  Xew  England.* 

/      Xew   England  and   the  Middle   states  are  the  largest. 

-  centers  of  woolen  industries,  Xew  England  operating  one 
half,  and  Pennsylvania,  X^ew  York,  and  X^ew  Jersey  one 
third  of  the  total  woolen  machinery.  Some  towns  have 
special  advantages  for  woolen  mills,  as  Philadelphia,  where 
the  Schuylkill  river  water  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  woolen 
manufacturing,  f 

"\  American  woolen  factories  form  four  groups  according  to 
the  nature  of  their  products:  woolen,  worsted,  carpet,  and 
felting  mills.  Some  mills  also  make  a  specialty  of  dyeing 
and  finishing  woolens.  The  largest  products  of  the  woolen 
mills  are  cloths  for  men's  suitings,  a  great  part  of  which 
are  purchased  by  makers  of  "  ready-made  "  clothing,  and 


*  Tlie  wool  or  hair  of  Angora  and  Cashmere  goats,  the  alpaca, 
vicufia,  and  camel  are  also  used  in  wool  manufactures.  South  Africa 
exports  a  great  deal  of  mohair,  the  long,  fine,  silky  wool  of  the  Angora 
goat,  now  extensively  raised  in  Cape  Colony.  Most  of  the  material 
from  which  the  famous  Cashmere  shawls  are  made  is  the  downy  cover- 
ing next  the  skin  of  the  Cashmere  goat.  The  soft,  elastic  wool  of  the 
alpaca,  domesticated  on  the  Andean  plateaxis,  gave  rise  to  the  large 
al[)aca  cloth  industry.  The  vieuila  is  not  domesticated,  and  its  wool, 
though  highly  prized,  is  in  small  supply.  Camel's  hair,  mixed  with 
other  yarns,  is  used  in  making  shawls,  carpets,  and  some  other 
fabrics. 

f  There  are  very  many  woolen  mills,  lint  the  largest  centers — in 
order  of  importance — are  Philadelpliia.  Lawrence,  IVIass.,  Providence, 
R.  T..  TjowcII.  Mass..  New  York  city.  ^Manchester,  N.  II..  Camden.  N.  J., 
and  Chester,  Pa.  Philadelphia  is  the  chief  woolen  center  of  the  United 
States. 


j[,,0  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

drt'sa  goods  for  women's  wear.  Most  of  these  goods  are  of 
iiu'diuni  quality,  but  many  compare  favorably  with  the  best 
foreign  goods ;  the  high  cost  of  labor  in  American  mills, 
however,  counts  more  against  the  production  of  the  finest 
grades  of  woolen  and  other  textiles  than  of  the  cheaper 
grades  because  of  the  extra  care,  skill,  and  labor  required 
in  finishing  them.  American  flannels  and  blankets  are 
unsurpassed,  and  practically  fill  the  home  demand. 

The  worsted  mills  produce  merinos,  serges,  and  other 
stuff  goods,  hosiery,  and  knit  goods.  The  United  States 
makes  more  machine-made  knit  goods  than  all  other  nations 
combined.  Americans  wear  far  more  of  them  than  any 
other  people ;  Cohoes,  jST.  Y.,  is  the  largest  center  of  their 
manufacture.  Cotton,  wool,  and  silk,  either  separately  or 
mixed,  are  used  in  these  manufactures. 

The  carpet  mills  have  made  the  United  States  the 
greatest  carpet-manufacturing  nation,  no  other  country 
producing  so  large  a  quantity  and  variety.  The  quality  is 
excelled  only  by  the  handloom  products  of  Oriental  coun- 
tries. Philadelphia's  carpet  product  is. greater  than  that 
of  all  the  rest  of  the  country  combined,  but  Lowell,  Hart- 
ford, New  York  city,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  and  some  other  cities 
are  conspicuous  in  these  manufactures.  Most  of  the  fac- 
tories produce  ingrains,  but  the  more  expensive  varieties 
are  made  in  large  quantities,  and  the  annual  product,  worth 
$50,000,000,  nearly  fills  the  home  demand. 

Felt  mills  turn  out  felted  wool,  a  material  produced  by 
matting  wool  through  the  application  of  heat,  moisture, 
and  pressure,  and  used  for  floor  coverings,  hats,  and  some 
other  purposes.  Both  the  production  and  importation  are 
now  small,  because  hatmakers  have  found  fur  better  suited 
for  felting  (p.  89). 

The  woolen  products  of  America  have  not  yet  won  an 
important  place  in  foreign  trade.  They  are  nearly  all  con- 
sumed at  home ;  and  there  are  purchasers  also,  in  spite  of 
heavy  duties,  for  about  110,000,000  worth  a  year  of  British, 


THE   UNITED  STATES  101 

French,  and  German  cloths  for  men's  wear,  and  dress  goods 
for  women  and  childreii. 

The  silk  of  commerce  is  derived  from  the  cocoon  of  the 
Chinese  silkworm.  It  is  the  only  caterpillar  reared  for  its 
silk.  The  cocoons  of  several  wild  species  in  India  and 
Mongolia  yield  tussar  silk,  which  is  imported  into  Europe. 
The  Chinese  silkworm  feeds  for  forty  days,  between  the 
time  it  is  hatched  and  the  time  it  spins  its  cocoon,  upon 
mulberry  or  osage  orange  leaves.  It  is  then  busy  from  three 
to  five  days  spinning  its  cocoon,  when  the  larva  is  killed  by 
heating  the  cocoon.  The  light  yellow  raw  silk  is  reeled 
and  sent  to  market  in  skeins.  Just  as  the  animal  spun  it, 
except  that  the  gum  that  binds  all  the  threads  together  is 
softened  by  immersing  the  cocoon  in  hot  water,  and  then, 
in  reeling,  several  of  the  very  fine  threads,  passing  through 
the  fingers  of  the-  operator,  are  united  into  one  by  this 
gummy  substance.  About  a  thousand  perfect  cocoons  yield 
a  pound  of  raw  silk.  There  is  no  cheap  raw  silk.  It  must 
fulfill  required  conditions  as  to  weight  and  strength  of 
fiber  or  it  is  not  accepted.  Spun  silk,  however,  an  inferior 
quality,  is  obtained  from  damaged  cocoons,  or  the  outer 
covering  of  the  cocoon,  and  is  spun  like  other  fibers,  while 
raw  silk  is  not  spun.  Raw  silk  is  prepared  for  manufac- 
ture by  boiling,  to  extract  the  gum  and  other  extraneous 
matter,  and  "  throwing,"  a  series  of  operations  by  which 
the  too  delicate  fiber  is  twisted  and  doubled  into  a  more 
substantial  thread,  called  thrown  silk,  when  it  is  ready  for 
the  loom.  Other  operations  require  tlie  dyer,  printer,  and 
finisher. 

China  and  Japan  are  the  largest  sources  of  raw  silk,  but 
sericulture  is  an  industry  of  many  countries,  and  is  highly 
developed  in  Italy  and  France  (Fig.  55),  Eaw  silk  miglit 
be  extensively  produced  in  the  United  States  if  wages  were 
not  high,  but  home-grown  silk  could  scarcely  compete,  for 
example,  with  Italy's  product,  where  girls  are  hired  to  reel 
raw  silk  at  1  cent  an  hour.     China  sells  large  quantities  of 


l,,o  COMMEECIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

silkAvorm  eggs  to  European  growers.  The  United  States 
consumes  about  one  third  of  the  world's  supply  of  raw  silk 
(p.  106). 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  manufacturer  of  silk 
goods.  Since  1860  it  has- built  up  an  industry  that  supplies 
its  people  with  five  sixths  of  the  silks  they  use.     Most  of 


( 

1 

2 

3        4        5        6        7        8       9       10      11      12      13      14      15      16      17 

CHINA  ^  export) 

JAPAN  (export) 

ITALY 

FRANCE 



ANATOLIA 

^ 

SYRIA 

^ 

INDIA  (export) 

— 

CAUCASUS 

« 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

^^ 

H 

Fig.  55.— Kaw-silk  production  in  1899,  in  million  pounds. 

the  mills  are  in  Xew  Jersey,  ^ew  York,  and  Pennsylvania 
(p.  106),  but  the  industry  is  pursued  in  nineteen  states. 
About  half  the  product  is  in  broad  goods,  a  quarter  in  rib- 
bons, and  most  of  the  remainder  in  sewing  silks.  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.,  "  the  Lyons  of  America,"  and  the  greatest  cen- 
ter of  the  industry,  has  the  largest  ribbon  mill  in  the 
world.  The  silk  manufactures  amount  (1901)  to  nearly 
$150,000,000  a  year,  and  practically  all  are  consumed  in 
the  country.  The  import  of  manufactured  silks  is  only 
about  one  sixth  of  the  home  manufactures  (p.  106).  Most 
of  them  are  the  best  products  of  Lyons,  Krefeld,  Zurich, 
and  Japan. 

Flax  is  grown  for  its  fiber  and  seed.  The  best  fiber  is 
produced  in  southern  Belgium,  while  Russia  surpasses  all 
other  countries  in  the  quantity  raised.  It  is  grown  in  the 
United  States  mainly  for  its  seed  (linseed).  /^'Kearly  all 
the  fine  flax  goods  used,  such  as  laces  and  liriens,  are  im- 
ported from  Europe. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  103 

A  number  of  other  fibers  are  important  in  commerce. 
Hemp,  mostly  grown  in  Europe  and  India,  is  widely  used 
for  rope  and  sail  cloth.  The  "  garden  hemp  "  of  Italy  is 
the  finest,  Russian  hemp,  the  strongest  and,  for  most  pur- 
poses, the  best.  Hennequin  and  Manila  hemp  have  largely 
supplanted  hemp  in  the  United  States.  The  so-called 
Manila  hemp,  derived  from  a  species  of  the  banana,  thrives 
only  in  the  Philippines.  It  yields  a  strong,  coarse  fiber, 
the  best  and  cheapest  material  for  cordage  and  sail 
cloths.  The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  buy  most  of 
it.  Hennequin,  or  sisal  hemp,  is  the  only  large  export 
product  of  Yucatan.  About  70,000  tons  are  sent  to  the 
United  States  every  year  for  cotton  sacking.  Jute,  grown 
almost  entirely  in  the  delta  region  of  the  Ganges,  has  a 
glossy  coarse  fiber  that  mixes  well  with  silk,  and  takes  a 
bright  and  permanent  coloring.  It  is  used  for  gunny 
bags— in  which  many  commodities  are  transported — for 
carpets,  and  recently  in  curtains,  and  even  plushes  and 
velvets.  Raw  jute  and  its  products  are  sent  to  the  United 
States  in  large  quantities.  Dundee,  Scotland,  is  the  chief 
seat  of  jute  manufactures,  and  nearly  all  the  jute  that 
India  raises  is  exported  raw  or  manufactured.  Esparto 
(alfa  in  Algeria),  a  grass  growing  spontaneously  in  Spain 
and  Algeria,  is  sent  to  Scotland  and  England  for  paper- 
making,  and  Sj)ain  turns  the  fiber  into  rope,  baskets,  and 
matting.  Ramie,  or  China  grass,  of  the  nettle  family,  is 
grown  largely  in  China,  Japan,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago 
for  coarse  fabrics  and  cordage.  Xew  Zealand  flax  or  phor- 
mium  is  another  fiber  used  for  paper,  cordage,  and  fabrics.* 

*  The  oil  seeds  of  several  fiber  plants  give  rise  to  large  industries. 
Cotton-seed  oil  is  a  substitute  for  butter  or  lard  in  cookery,  or  for  olive 
and  some  other  oils.  More  than  $15,000,000  are  annually  paid  to  South- 
ern planters  for  their  cotton  seed,  which  is  sent  to  mills  that  express 
the  oil.  New  Orleans  is  the  largest  center  of  the  industry.  The  resi- 
due, after  the  oil  is  expressed,  is  the  oil  cake  and  oil-cake  meal  of 
commerce,  used  as  cattle  feed  or  n  fertilizer.     About  a  fourth  of  these 


104  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Paper  is  made  from  vegetable  fibers.  The  fibers,  reduced 
to  i)ulp,  nuit  together  when  freed  from  the  water  used 
in  the  pulping  process.  Linen  and  cotton  rags,  wood, 
straw,  paper  waste,  and  esparto  are  the  fibers  used.  AVood 
pulp  is  the  largest  source  of  paper  stock  where  great  forests 
of  spruce  or  poplar  exist,  as  in  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Germany.  Printing,  writing,  and  wrapping  papers  are 
the  most  important  kinds,  but  paper  is  made  into  a  great 
variety  of  articles,  such  as  boxes  and  wall  paper,  and  is 
moulded  from  the  pulp  into  building  materials,  pails,  and 
car  wheels.  The  chief  paper  producers  are  the  United 
States,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  producer  of  paper. 
The  enormous  consumption  in  the  country  is  due  mainly 
to  the  great  number  and  size  of  newspaper  and  other 
periodical  publications.  Fifty  paper  mills,  most  of  them 
in  Xew  York,  'New  England,  Wisconsin,  and  Oregon,  near 
sources  of  wood-j^ulp  sujiply,  make  3,000  tons  of  news  paper 
a  day.  Nearly  all  the  news  paper  is  made  of  wood  pulp, 
and  an  area  half  as  large  as  Khode  Island  is  stripped  of 

I  timber  every  year  to  supply  the  paper  mills.    Massachu- 
manufactures  more  than  half  of  the  writing  and  other 

-^r  grades  of  paper,  mostly  made  of  linen  and  muslin 
Holyoke,  Mass.,  is  the  largest  center  of  the  industry. 

publishing  of  books  and  pei'iodicals  is  centered,  to  a 

"  extent,  in  Xew  York  city,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and 
■     ago. 

'his  country  exports  more  than  twice  as  much  paper 
and  its  manufactures  as  it  imjjorts.  Great  Britain  is  the 
largest  buyer  of  our  news,  book,  and  writing  papers.     This 

three  products  is  shipped  to  Europe.  Linseed  oil,  the  oil  of  flaxseed, 
is  the  kirgest  ingredient  of  paints,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil 
cloth  and  printer's  iidv.  Most  of  the  product  in  the  United  States  is 
controlled  liyone  company.  All  of  the  domestic  linseed  is  consumed  at 
home,  and  in  some  years  large  quantities  are  imported.  Hemp-seed  oil 
is  also  used  in  making  soaps,  paints,  and  varnishes, 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


105 


country,  and  all  the  leading  European  producers  of  paper, 
except  Great  Britain,  Eussia,  and  Spain,  export  more  paper 
than  they  import. 

World's  Cotton  Statistics 
Mean  Annual  Factory  Cotton  Consumption  {in  Million  Tons) 


1831--40. 

185]-'60. 

1871-'80. 

1891-'94. 

United  Kingdom 

1.59 
0.79 
0.37 

3.85 
2.45 
1.45 

5.63 

4.27 
2.74 

7  09 

Other  Europe 

United  States 

8.52 
5.52 

Cotton  Spindles  (in  3Iillions) 
1893 


Great  Britain 45.2 

European  continent. .   26.8 


1897. 

1893. 

1897. 

44.9 

United  States 

...  15.6 

17.3 

30.3 

India 

...     3.5 

4.0 

United  States  Cotton  Statistics 

Average  Value  of  Raw  Cotton  Exports  from  the  United  States  in 
Five  Years  (1894-98) 


Million 
dollars. 


Per  cent. 

United  Kingdom  .   107.5  50.40 

Germany 44.9  21.05 

France  23.2  10.88 

Italy 10.3  4.86 

Spain 8.3  3.92 

Belgium 4.2  1.98 


Million 
dollars 


Russia,  European . 

Canada 

Japan  

Mexico 

Netherlands 


Per  cent. 
3.8         1.86 


.  3.1  1.50 

.  2.4  1.16 

.  1.5  .74 

.  0.9  .43 

All  countries 213.4  100.00 


Value 

of  Cotton  Manufacttires  {in  Million  Dollars) 

ia50. 

I860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

61.8 

115.7 

177.5 

192.0 

267.9 

Value  of  Cotton  Fabrics  exported  in  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 


To  China 9.8 

British  North  America  . .  2.7 

Other  Asia  and  Oceania. .  1.2 

United  Kingdom 0.9 


To  Mexico 0.9 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 0.7 

Central  American  States.  0.7 

All  countries 23.5 


106 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


United  States  Wool  Statistics 
Value  of  United  States  Wool  Manufactures  {in  Million  Dollars) 


1850. 


49.6 


1860. 


80.7 


1870. 


217.6 


1880. 


1890. 


267.2 


337.7 


Value  of  Imported  Wool  Mamifadures  {in  Million  Dollars) 
1898.      1899. 


Dress  goods 6.9      5.5 

Cloths 3.8      4.5 

Carpets, 2.0      2.2 


Clothing 0.8      0.9 

Knit  fabrics 0.6      0.5 

All  manufactures  . .   15.2     14.6 


United  States  Silk  Statistics 

Value  of  Raw  Silk  imported  {in  31illion  Dollars) 

1898.       1899.  I                                                    1898.  1899. 

From  Japan 12.5     20.9    From  Italy 7.1  9.3 

China 4.5     10.8  |                All  countries  .  26.5  42.7 

Distribution  of  Silk  Mills  in,  1898 


New  Jersey. 

New  York. 

Pennsylvania. 

Other  States. 

Total. 

257 

228 

172 

204 

861 

Value  of  United  States  Silk  Manufact 

ures  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1850. 

I860. 

1870.                        1880. 

1890. 

1.8 

6.6 

12.2 

41 

87.3 

Value  of  Imported  Silk  Manufactures  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1898.   1899.  I  1898.   1899. 

From  France 10.6     12.2     From  Japan 2.7      3.2 

Germany 4.6       4.9,  United  Kingdom     2.7       2.5 

Switzerland...     3.8      3.9  1  All  countries  .   25.2     27.8 


CHAPTEE   XI 

THE    UNITED    STATIiS-(Continued) 

Wood  Crops,  the  Commodities  they  yield, 
AXD  the  Trade  in  them 

The  foremost  wood-producing  countries  are  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Russia.  Most  of  the  wood  supplies  are 
derived  from  the  great  forest  areas  of  the  north  temperate 
zone  which  girdle  the  land  surface  between  the  arctic  cir- 
cle and  the  30th  parallel  (pine  and  leaf  trees,  Fig.  4).  The 
wood  crops  of  two  countries  in  this  forest  zone,  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  give  employment  to  more  persons  than 
any  other  industry  except  agriculture  ;  and  the  lumber, 
furniture,  and  other  kinds  of  business  depending  upon  the 
wood  crops  employ  more  capital  and  produce  a  larger  value 
of  products  in  these  countries  than  any  other  manufactur- 
ing industry.  We  have  only  to  look  about  us,  in  our  homes 
or  outside  of  them,  to  realize  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
conveniences  of  life  are,  wholly  or  in  part,  made  from  for- 
est products. 

The  largest  element  in  the  timber  trade  is  the  soft  and 
hard  pines,  which  are  most  important  for  lumber  and  gen- 
eral building  purposes.  Observe  the  pine  areas  in  Fig.  4. 
The  white  pine  is  the  most  useful  timber  of  the  north  tem- 
perate zone.  The  greater  part  of  the  wooden  buildings  in 
the  United  States  are  made  of  white  pine  lumber.  Much 
lumber  for  building  purposes  is  also  made  from  tlie  s[)ruces ; 
and  the  bark  of  the  hemlock  spruce  is  used  in  tanning 
leather.     Hard  woods  are  less  employed  for  lumber  tlum 

107 


IQg  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

soft  woods,  but  they  are  extensively  used  for  the  woodwork 
of  machinery,  house  trimmings,  floors,  furniture,  ship  fit- 
tings, and  ornamental  purposes.* 

A  crop  of  timber  takes  about  a  century  to  mature,  and  like 
any  other  crop,  needs  care.  The  forests  have  largely  dimin- 
ished because  their  resources  have  been  utilized  for  ages, 
with  no  care  to  replant  the  denuded  lands.  Thus  the  neces- 
sity has  arisen  for  forestry  methods  by  which  timber  lands 
are  systematically  replanted  and  tree  culture  extended.  In 
most  European  countries  and  in  India  forest  management 
is  under  government  control,  and  laws  provide  that  replant- 
ing must  immediately  follow  cutting.  Over  8,000,000  young 
forest  trees  were  set  out  in  1896  in  denuded  districts  of 
Switzerland.  In  America  the  ravages  of  fire  have,  in  twenty 
years,  inflicted  $800,000,000  of  damage  upon  the  timber 
lands.  Overcutting  has  largely  exhausted  the  white-pine 
supply,  and  this  great  staple  of  the  lumber  trade  will  entirely 
disappear  unless  the  pine  lands  are  replanted.  The  Federal 
Government  and  several  states  of  the  Union  are  now  apply- 
ing forestry  methods,  so  that  future  generations  may  benefit 
by  forest  wealth. 

Lumber  is  the  largest  product  of  the  forests.  As  it  is  very 
heavy  and  bulky  in  proportion  to  value,  it  requires  cheap 
freight  rates  to  carry  it  profitably  to  the  markets.  This  is 
the  main  reason  why  the  pine  and  spruce  lumber  of  our 
Pacific  coast  has  scarcely  reached  the  Central  and  Eastern  - 

*  The  walnut,  maple,  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  and  hickory  are  charac- 
teristic hard  woods  of  North  America  and  Europe.  Ebony,  a  black  n 
wood  from  Ceylon,  Madagascar,  and  India,  is  very  hard,  takes  a  high 
polish,  and  is  used  in  fine  furniture.  Teak,  the  finest  wood  of  India  and 
Indo-China,  lasts  for  many  centuries.  The  white  ants  of  tropical  lands 
do  not  attack  this  timber  as  they  do  many  others,  and  so  it  is  used  for 
building  in  hot» climates.  It  is  also  employed  for  the  woodwork  of  war 
ships,  as  projectiles  do  not  splinter  it.  The  bamboo  of  South  Asia,  the 
mahogany  of  tropical  America,  the  kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand,  and  the 
now  widely  distributed  eucalyptus  of  Australia  are  also  among  the  im-  "■ 
portant  timbers. 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


109 


states  by  rail,  though  it  is  sent  thousands  of  miles  by  sea  to 
foreign  markets.  The  fact  that  our  largest  lumber  in- 
dustries are  near  the  splendid  highway  of  the  Great  Lakes 
cheapens  the  price  of  this  commodity. 

The  United  States  is  the  largest  producer  of  lumber  (p. 
114).     The  greater  part  of  the  country  yields  more  or  less 


LU31BER  \  Import,  fn 

Ontario 
W 


ViV 


^^^  Laryest  Prvductton, 
^^I«'portant 

#     Largt:8t  Lumber  mar 


115 


Fig.  56.— Since  1865  the  pineries  of  Michigan.  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  have  fur- 
nished most  of  the  white  pine,  which  supplies  a  quarter  of  the  total  lumber  out- 
put. White  pine  has  made  Chicago,  with  its  nnequaled  water  and  rail  facilities 
for  receiving  and  distributing  lumber  from  these  pine  states,  the  largest  lumber 
market  in  the  world.  Spruce  is  obtained  in  many  places  along  the  northern  bor- 
der, but  .Maine.  New  Hampshire,  and  the  Adirondacks  supply  most  of  it,  both  for 
lumber  and  wood  pulp.  Boston.  Albany,  and  New  York  city  being  nearest  to 
the  main  sources  of  supply,  are  naturally  the  largest  spruce  lumber  markets. 
Jilemlock  lumber  and  bark  come  from  southern  New  York  and  northern  Penn- 
sylvania, and  near  the  forests  are  many  tanneries  that  use  the  bark  in  tanning 
leather.  The  Southern  i)ines  are  a  large  source  of  lumber.  The  most  inii)ortant 
varieties  are  the  yellow  or  (ieorgia  pine  and  the  short-leaf  or  loblolly  (North  Caro- 
lina and  Virginia  pine),  which  supjjly  Soul  hern  and  many  Northern  markets. 
Southern  sawmills  are  scattered  from  Texas  to  Virginia,  and  New  Orleans  is  a 
large  market  for  Southern  lumber.  The  spruces,  cedar,  and  redwood  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast  furnish  one  tenth  of  the  lumber.'  The  Douglas  fir  of  the  Northwest 
supplies  a  large  part  of  the  world's  demand  for  ship  masts  and  spars,  aiul  is  widely 
used  for  bridges.  The  hard  woods  contribute  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  lumber  sup- 
plies. The  main  sources  of  hard  wood  are  now  south  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  with  St.  Louis  and  Memphis  as  the  largest  markets. 


IIQ  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

jilniiulant  supplies  (Fig.  56).  The  lumber  taken  from  our 
.  forests  every  year,  if  all  used  for  house  building,  would  build 
several  million  houses ;  but  lumber  is  also  used  for  a  great 
many  other  purposes.  The  large  snowfall  in  the  northern 
pine  forests  helps  to  cheapen  lumber  making,  because  it 
gives  easy  haulage  from  the  logging  camps.  The  timber  is 
cut  in  these  camps  in  winter,  hauled  on  sleds  over  the  snow 
to  the  banks  of  streams,  and  floated  in  great  log  drives  in 
the  spring,  to  the  hundreds  of  sawmills  where  the  lumber 
is  manufactured.  Improved  saws  and  other  machinery 
have  vastly  increased  the  facility  with  which  timber  is 
turned  into  lumber.  Steamboats,  rafts,  and  railroads  carry 
the  product  from  the  sawmills  to  the  large  lumber  markets, 
where  it  is  distributed  to  the  smaller  towns. 

The  United  States  consumes  more  timber  and  lumber  than 
any  other  country,  and  is  the  largest  buyer  from  other  lands. 
About  a  fourth  of  its  imports  are  mahogany  and  otlier 
cabinet  woods,  admitted  free  of  duty,  and  coming  almost 
wholly  from  tropical  America.  The  cheap  production  uf 
lumber  and  wood  pulp  in  Canada  enables  that  country,  in 
spite  of  the  duty,  to  sell  large  quantities  to  the  United 
States.  Tonawanda,  on  the  Xiagara  Eiver  and  Erie  Canal, 
and  Oswego  on  Lake  Ontario,  are  the  most  important  points 
for  the  receipt  of  Canadian  lumber.  Canada  and  tropical 
America  supply  nearly  all  our  imported  forestry  products. 

The  country  exports  more  lumber  than  it  imports  (p. 
114).  Many  populous  countries  are  deficient  in  timber, 
which  is  profitably  exported  by  sea  for  thousands  of  milr-. 
Europe  is  the  largest  buyer.  While  Germany's  home  sup- 
ply of  lumber  is  nearly  sufficient,  France,  Great  Britain, 
Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Belgium  use  much  more  wood 
than  they  produce,  and  supply  their  deficiencies  by  imports 
from  the  large  forest  countries  near  them — Russia,  Xorway. 
Sweden,  and  Austria-Hungary,  and  also  from  Canada  and 
the  United  States  (p.  114).  Latin  America  has  few  saw- 
mills, and  few  soft  woods  that  compare  favorably  with  our 


D 

si 

Pi 

o 

y. 

k— t 

Si 

a 

C^ 

f- 

w 

« 

^ 

n 

L) 

x 

J 

i 


THE   UNITED  STATES  HI 

--pines.  These  southern  countries  therefore  sujaply  a  larger 
market  for  our  lumber  than  for  most  other  commodities  of 
the  country.  The  soft  lumber  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  sent 
in  large  quantities  from  San  Francisco  and  Puget  Sound 
ports  to  Australia,  China,  Japan,  and  South  Africa. 

Furniture  valued  at  about  $80,000,000  is  annually  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States.  The  largest  cities,  such  as 
Xew  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia,  are  the  chief  centers 
of  the  industry,  but  some  small  cities,  as  Grand  Eapids, 
Saginaw,  and  Muskegon,  Mich.,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
In  these  cities  the  superiority  of  the  timber  resources  near 
at  hand  for  furniture  making  gave  rise  to  very  large  indus- 
tries. Only  Xew  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia  produce 
more  furniture  than  Grand  Eapids  ;  and  buyers  from  all 
over  the  country  attend  the  semi-annual  sales  in  that  city. 
Nearly  1,500  furniture  factories  are  distributed  through 
the  country,  the  larger  part  of  them,  as  in  the  Southern 
states  from  Memphis,  Tenn.,  to  Montgomery,  Ala.,  near  the 
forests  that  supply  the  lumber.  Large  quantities  of  the 
finer  grades  of  foreign  furniture  were  formerly  imported, 
while  home  factories  supplied  the  cheaper  lines  ;  but  the 
best  qualities  of  furniture  are  now  made  at  home,  and  prices 
being  low,  the  exports  are  much  larger  than  the  imports. 

Various  gums  and  resins  are  obtained  from  trees.  Tar, 
turpentine,  and  resin  (commonly  called  rosin)  are  known 

;«s  naval  stores,  and  are  mainly  supplied  by  the  pine  forests 

^.  of  North  and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia ;  smaller  quanti- 
ties are  produced  in  Russia  and  Scandinavia.     Tar,  a  thick, 

^;black  fluid,  distilled  from  the  wood  by  heat,  is  used  for 
calking  ship  decks  and  sides,  and  in  preparing  the  rope 
•rigging  of  vessels.  Turpentine,  an  oily,  resinous  «ibstance 
secreted  by  the  wood  or  bark,  is  obtained  by  tapping  the 
tree  and  collecting  the  outflow  (crude  turpentine),  the  dis- 
tilled product  of  which  (spirits  of  turpentine)  is  manu- 
factured at  Wilmington,  Xewbcrn,  and  Beaufort.  X.  C,  and 
other  towns  near  sources  of  supply.     Turpentine  is  used  in 


112  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

the  preparation  of  varnishes  and  paints,  and  to  some  extent 
in  pharmacy.  Rosin,  the  residue  left  after  distilling  the 
turpentine,  is  used  in  varnishes,  yellow  soaps,  etc.  Practi- 
cally no  naval  stores  are  imported  into  the  United  States, 
but  this  country  sends  large  quantities  of  crude  turpentine 
and  spirits  of  turpentine  to  Europe,  and  of  rosin  to  Europe 
and  Australasia  (p.  114).* 

Many  trees  and  vines  yield  india  rubber  or  caoutchouc. 
The  sources  of  supply  are  tropical  countries  in  South  and 
Central  America,  West  and  Central  Africa,  and  British 
India.  Rubber  was  not  utilized  till  1770,  when  artists  in 
England  began  to  employ  it  to  erase  pencil  marks,  from 
which  fact  it  derived  its  name.  When  rubber  fabrics  were 
first  manufactured  the  rubber  melted  in  summer  and 
cracked  in  winter.  Then  Charles  Goodyear  discovered  the 
secret  of  vulcanized  rubber  or  the  application  of  sulphur 
and  heat  to  make  raw  rubber  an  article  of  practical  utility. 
This  established  the  rubber  industries  on  a  prosperous  basis 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  United  States  spends  $30,000,000  a  year  for  crude 
rubber  and  increases  its  value  to  $80,000,000  by  turning  it 
into  many  articles.  More  than  half  the  rubber  shipped 
from  the  Amazon  basin,  which  supplies  two  thirds  of  the 
world's  product,  is  bought  by  the  United  States  (p.  115). 
Europe  takes  the  remainder.  A  third  of  the  crude  rubber 
is  made  into  shoes  and  boots.  The  United  States  manu- 
factures six  times  as  many  rubber  shoes  and  boots  as  the 
whole  of  Europe,  for  the  reason  that  everybody  in  this 
country  wears  "  rubbers,"  while  their  use  in  Europe  is  con- 

*  Other  gums  and  resins,  mainly  produced  in  southern  Asia,  are  im- 
ported to  the  value  of  over  |5,000.000  a  year,  such  as  gum  arable  and 
gum  tragacanth  for  mucilage,  camphor  for  medicinal  uses,  copal  and 
damar  for  varnishes,  gambler  for  tanning  leather,  and  shellac,  from 
which  the  best  sealing  wax  is  made,  a  secretion  caused  by  the  lac  insect 
on  the  branches  of  trees  in  India  and  other  tropical  countries.  Shellac 
has  the  leading  place  among  the  imported  gums. 


i 


THE   UNITED   STATES  113 

fined  to  persons  of  means.  Many  other  articles  are  made 
of  rubber,  as  bicycle  tires,  belting,  blankets,  combs,  and  but- 
tons. The  manufactures  are  mainly  confined  to  Massachu- 
setts, Khode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  Xearly  all  the  out- 
put is  consumed  at  home,  and  manufactured  imports  are 
very  small. 

Gutta-percha  is  the  hardened,  milky  juice  of  a  large  tree 
thriving  mainly  in  Java,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra.  The  tree 
is  cut  down  to  obtain  the  juice.  No  satisfactory  substitute 
for  gutta-percha  has  been  found  for  coating  submarine 
cables.  The  demand  is  now  greater  than  the  supply,  as 
the  resources  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo  are  nearly  exhausted. 
The  imports  into  this  country  are  comparatively  small. 

Some  trees  and  other  plants  yield  dyestuffs.  These  color- 
ing materials  are  now  obtained  artificially  from  a  product 
of  coal-tar  (p.  119),  and  the  natural  dyes,  therefore,  are  of 
less  importance  than  formerly.* 

The  cinchona  tree  yields  quinine  (Peruvian  bark).  It  is 
highly  valued  for  its  curative  effects  in  malarial  fevers. 
Though  a  native  of  the  Andean  regions  of  northern  South 
America,  particularly  Peru  and  Ecuador,  it  has  been  planted 
largely  in  Ceylon,  Java,  and  India,  whence  the  greater  part 
of  the  drug  is  now  derived.  The  imports  into  the  United 
States  are  valued  at  about  11,000,000  a  year. 

*  Logwood,  from  the  West  Indies,  is  most  used  for  dyeing  wool  and 
woolen  goods  and  in  the  manufacture  of  ink.  The  indigo  plant  of  In- 
dia and  Central  America  yields  a  very  valuable  blue  dye,  and  the  im- 
ports exceed  those  of  all  other  dyestuffs  together.  It  is  also  artificially 
produced  from  benzene,  derived  from  coal  tar.  Madder,  cultivated 
in  southern  Asia.  Europe,  and  the  United  States,  is  used  for  dyeing  cloth 
red.  Quercitron,  a  yellow  dye  from  the  bark  of  a  variety  of  the  oak,  is 
employed  in  calico  printing.  Fustic,  or  yellow  wood,  from  tropical 
America  is  employed  in  wool  dyeing.  The  red  Brazil  wood  is  imported 
from  Central  and  South  America,  and  the  more  valued  camwood 
comes  from  West  Africa.  Cochineal,  an  animal  dyestuff,  derived 
from  an  insect  which  is  V)rnshed  from  tlie  cactus  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  Peru,  is  used  to  jiroduce  scarlet  and  other  red  tints. 


114 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


The  cork  tree  flourishes  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  Manii- 
factured  cork  being  dutiable,  most  of  the  cork  used  for 
bottling  in  the  United  States  is  prepared  in  the  country, 
from  imported  cork  wood  or  bark. 

Forest  Areas  in  Chief  Counteies  (in  Million  Square  Miles) 

Canada 1.2  Sweden 0.07 

United  States. . .  0.8  Germany 0.05 

Russia 0.6  Austria-Hungary  0.04 

Finland 0.09  France 0.04 


Xorway 0.03 

Spain 0.02(f) 

Italy 0.02 


STATISTICS  FOR  THE   UNITED   STATES 
Lumber  Production  in  1890  (in  Billion  Feet) 


White  pine 12.0 

Spruce  and  fir .5.0 

Hemlock 4.0 

Long-leaf  pine 4.0 

Short-leaf  pine 3.0 

Loblolly  pine 3.0 


Cyprus 0.5 

Redwood 0.5 

All  other  conifers 1.0 

Oak 3.0 

All  other  hard  woods 7.0 

Total 43TO 


Sources  of  Lumber  Supply  in  1890  (in  Billion  Feet) 
New  England  and  North  At-        I  Southern  States 13 


lantic  States 6 

Central  States 5 

Lake  region 13 


Pacific  States 4 

Miscellaneous 2 


Lumber  Exports  (in  Million  Dollars) 


1899. 

3.8 
1.1 
0.5 
1.4 
Argentina 1.0 


To  United  Kingdom 

Germany 

France 

British  North  America 


1899. 

To  Mexico 1.0 

Cuba 0.9 

Brazil 0.5 

All  countries 17.0 


Exports  of  Spirits  of  Turpentine  {is  Million  Dollars) 


1899. 


To  United  Kingdom 3.4 

Germany 1.0 

Other  Europe  2.2 

British  North  America  ...  0.3 


To  Australasia 0.2 

Argentina 0.1 

All  countries 7.6 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


115 


Imports  of  Crude  Rubber  (in  Million  Dollars) 


'             1898. 

1899. 

^'rom  Brazil 

United  Kingdom 

Germany 

Other  Europe 

Other  South  America 

13.3 
6.5 
0.8 
3.5 
0.7 
0.6 
0.2 

25.9 

18.4 
6.8 
1.1 
5.3 
1.0 

Central  America 

East  Indies 

0.8 
0.3 

All  countries 

34.2 

CHAPTEE   XII 

THE    UNITED    STATES -(Continued) 

Coal,  Petroleum,  Iron  Ore,  Tix,  axd  their  Products 

Minerals  are  not  accessible  more  than  a  mile  below  the 
earth's  surface.  Eapidly  increasing  heat  as  depth  is  attained 
confines  mining  to  the  upper  rocks.  But  the  natural 
forces  that  uplift  many  rock  strata  bring  mineral  commod- 
ities within  reach  that  were  once  inaccessible.  Eain  and 
other  denuding  agencies  also  wear  away  rocks  till  mineral 
wealth  is  exposed  on  the  slopes  of  mountains  and  hills. 
Minerals  are  likely,  therefore,  to  be  mined  first  on  the  wind- 
ward sides  of  mountains ;  as,  for  example,  the  gold  washed 
into  valleys  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sierra  Xevadas,  and  tin 
on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
Mineral  commodities  are  obtained  by  quarrying  if  the  works 
are  open  and  visible  at  the  surface,  as  is  usually  the  case 
with  building  stone  and  much  iron  ore ;  or  by  mining  if  it 
is  necessary  to  dig  into  the  earth  and  bring  the  product  to 
the  surface  through  sliafts. 

Coal  and  its  product,  coke,  are  the  best  fael  for  iron-ore 
smelting.  This  fact  gives  coal  its  largest  economic  value, 
as  iron  is  the  most  important  material  used  in  manufactur- 
ing. Wherever  coal  and  iron  ore  may  be  cheaply  brouglit 
together,  the  tall  chimneys  of  many  factories  are  seen. 
Coal  is  derived  from  vegetation  transformed  by  heat  and 
pressure  into  a  black  or  brownish  substance  occurring  in 
beds  or  layers.  Its  varieties  are  broadly  subdivided  into 
hard  coal  or  anthracite, used  mainly  for  domestic  purposes; 
116 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


117 


soft  or  bituminous  coal,  the  great  fuel  for  steam  and  coke 
making ;  and  lignite,  which  is  least  valuable  as  fuel.  Coal 
is  very  widely  distributed  over  the  earth  (Fig.  (j). 

The  value  of  mineral  products  in  the  United  States  is  usual- 
ly more  than  twice  that  of  the  wheat  crop.  Coal  is  the  most 
valuable  mineral  commodity  of  the  country  (Fig.  57).     The 


Fig.  57. — Coal  underlies  more  than  one  sixth  of  the  surface  of  this  country.  Bitumi- 
nous coal  is  taken  from  seven  ^reat  flelds:  (1)  The  Appalachian  field,  extending 
over  ilOO  miles  from  New  York  to  Alahama.  supplies  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  total; 

(2)  the  Central  field,  in  Illinois.  Indiana,  and  Kentucky,  siijiplies  nearly  one  sixth; 

(3)  the  Western  field,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  supplies  about  one  ninth;  (4)  the 
Rocky  Mountain,  (.5)  Pacific  coast.  (0)  Northern  (in  central  Michigan i.  and  (7)  Tri- 
assic  fields  (in  the  Richmond  basin,  Virginia,  and  along  the  Deep  and  Dan  rivers 
in  North  Carolina)  supply  the  remainder.  The  map  also  shows  the  anthracite  area 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Susquehanna.  Lehigh,  and  Schuylkill  rivers,  covering  only 
480  square  miles  in  eastern  Pennsylvania. 


country  mines  about  one  third  of  the  world's  coal  supply, 
and  in  1809  superseded  the  United  Kingdom  as  the  largest 
producer  (Fig.  58).  One  reason  why  the  United  States  can 
sell  its  iron  and  steel  products  abroad  is  l)eeauso  coal,  used 
in  making  iron  and  steel,  is  so  cheaply  mined  and  trans- 
ported.    Machines  for  mining  bituminous  coal  diminish  the 


118 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


cost  and  double  the  production  per  miner.  The  average 
price  for  hand  mining  is  50  cents  a  ton.  In  the  Appalach- 
ian field  many  streams  flow  in  deeply  eroded  canons,  ex- 
posing bituminous  coal  seams  and  thus  facilitating  mining. 
In  the  anthracite  field,  however,  deep  shafts  must  usually 


UNITED  STATES  (l899) 
GREAT  BRITAIN  (l899) 
GERMANY  (l898) 
FRANCE  (l898) 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  (1897; 
BELGIUM  Cl898) 
RUSSIA  (1897) 
CANADA  (1898) 
JAPAN  (l896) 
INDIA  (189?) 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES  (l898) 
SPAIN  (l863) 
TRANSVAAL  (^S9^') 
NEW  ZEALAND  (l897) 
OTHER  COUNTRIES 


I       I       1       1      I       I      1       1 


Fig.  58.— Annual  coal  production  by  countries,  in  million 
short  tons.  ' 


be  sunk  to  reach  the  coal  beds.  On  many  streams  the  coal 
is  carried  very  cheaply  on  barges  to  the  manufacturing 
towns,  thus  supplying  power  for  manufacturing  at  minimum 
rates. 

Most  parts  of  the  country  buy  bituminous  coal  from 
neighboring  fields,  but  anthracite,  being  almost  wholly  de- 
rived from  Pennsylvania,  is  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce as  far  west  as  the  Missouri  river.  Xew  York  city 
and  neighboring  shipping  points  in  Xew  Jersey  form  the 
largest  coal  market  in  the  world  except  London.  Large 
quantities  are  sold  to  steamships.  The  trade  with  other 
countries  is  small  (p.  127)  as  coal  is  so  heavy  and  bulky  in 


THE  UNITED  STATES  II9 

proportion  to  value  that  it  does  not  pay  to  sell  it  in  far  dis- 
tant countries  except  in  years  of  scarcity  and  high  prices 
abroad,  as  in  1899,  when  Europe  bought  considerable  Amer- 
ican coal. 

Coke  is  the  chief  fuel  in  the  metallurgy  of  iron  and 
steel.  It  is  superior  to  coal  for  blast-furnace  use,  as  it  gives 
greater  heat  and  contains  little  sulphur  or  other  substances 
harmful  in  iron  smelting.  It  is  produced  by  heating  certain 
kinds  of  bituminous  coal  in  ovens  from  which  air  is  almost 
wholly  excluded.  The  Connellsville  region,  forty  miles 
from  Pittsburg,  produces  more  coke  than  any  other  district 
in  the  world.  In  the  southern  and  central  Appalachians  are 
other  large  centers  of  coke  production.  Coke  is  the  fuel 
used  in  making  nine  tenths  of  United  States  pig  iron ;  three 
fourths  of  this  coke  comes  from  the  Connellsville  district. 

Coal  gas  produced  from  bituminous  coal  is  used  for 
illumination,  heating,  and  cooking.  Among  the  by-products 
is  coal  tar,  from  which  benzene  is  derived ;  from  chemical 
combinations  with  benzene  come  the  numerous  cheap  ani- 
line dyes  which  have  largely  supplanted  animal  and  vege- 
table colors  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing.  Xatural  gas, 
often  found  where  petroleum  is  obtained,  is  an  illuminant 
and  fuel.  It  is  utilized  mainly  in  western  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Ontario,  the  western  fields  sup- 
plying the  largest  quantity.  The  supply,  very  abundant 
at  first,  falls  off  after  a  time. 

Petroleum  is  an  illuminant  and  liquid  fuel.  The  name 
means  rock  oil.  It  is  a  natural,  oily  substance,  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  rocks  of  many  parts  of  the  world  (Fig.  7), 
and  usually  obtained  by  boring  till  the  oil  reservoir  is 
reached.  The  United  States  (Fig.  59)  produces  a  little  less 
crude  petroleum  than  Russia  (p.  127),  but  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  refined  oil,  the  illuminant  kerosene,  which  is 
the  chief  product  of  petroleum.  Our  kerosene  goes  to  most 
countries  of  the  world,  and  has  a  wider  sale  than  any  other 
of  our  exports.     Tank  steamers  loaded  at  American  refin- 


12i» 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


eries  pump  oil  into  reservoirs  at  Bombay,  from  which  the 
kerosene  is,  in  turn,  pumped  into  tank  cars  which  carry  it 
to  all  parts  of  India.  Our  kerosene  is  distributed  in  the 
same  way  in  many  countries.  Oil  in  bulk,  formerly  excluded 
from  the  Suez  Canal  because  explosions  or  fires  were  feared, 
is  now  freely  permitted  to  pass.     Kussian  kerosene  is  the 


Fig.  59.— The  production  of  crude  petroleum  in  this  country  in  1898  was  .53.000.000 
barrels.  Ohio  led,  and  onlj'  six  per  cent  of  rhe  total  product  was  outside  of  the 
Appalachian  and  northern  Ohio-Indiana  fields.  The  production  is  decreasing  in 
these  fields  and  increasing  in  other  states.  Large  discoveries  were  made  in 
southern  Texas  in  1901.  The  industry  began  in  18.59  at  Titusville.  Pa.  (Fig.  60). 
and  the  oil  was  refined  in  scores  of  small  refineries  around  Pittsburg  and  Oil 
City.  Thousands  of  miles  of  pipe  lines  were  then  laid  from  the  wells  to  the 
seaboard  and  Great  Lakes:  refineries  were  built  near  New  York.  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore,  and  near  Buffalo  and  Cleveland.  The  oil  is  now  pumped  directly 
from  the  wells  to  the  refineries,  whence  thousands  of  tank  cars  move  the  manu- 
factured product  to  the  home  markets;  scores  of  steamships  and  sailing-vessels 
carry  oil  in  bulk  or  in  barrels  and  cases  all  over  the  world.  The  pipe  lines 
made  a  saving  of  over  one  half  in  the  cost  of  transport.  Economies  in  production 
and  manufacture  have  also  helped  to  reduce  the  price  to  a  very  low  figure. 


largest  competitor,  but  even  in  Eussia  much  American  kero- 
sene is  used.  Considerable  of  our  crude  oil  is  refined  abroad, 
particularly  in  France. 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


121 


The  most  important  of  tlie  two  hundred  by-products  of 
petroleum  are  lubricating  oils,  which  have  largely  super- 
seded animal  and  vege- 
table oils  throughout  the 
world ;  gasoline,  used  in 
making  an  inflammable 
gas ;  and  the  ointment 
vaseline. 

Iron  is  the  most  wide- 
ly distributed  and  useful 
of  metals  (Fig.  7).  Iron 
gives  a  red  or  yellow  col- 
or to  many  soils  and  to 
some  rivers,  as  the  Con- 
go. Water,  percolating 
through  the  upper  rocks, 
dissolves  the  tiny  parti- 
cles of  iron.  The  iron 
which  the  water  trans- 
ports is  deposited  in  many 
places,  and  thus  beds  or 
veins  of  iron  ore  are 
formed.     Some   of  these 

beds  or  veins  are  deep  beneath  the  surface  and  others  are 
near  the  surface,  so  that  the  ore  may  be  shoveled  out  of 
open  pits,  as  in  a  part  of  the  Lake  Superior  iron-ore  district. 

As  iron  is  found  pure  only  in  Greenland,  it  must  be 
extracted  from  its  ores  by  smelting.  The  iron  tlius  pro- 
cured still  contains  impurities  which  aflFect  its  quality  and 
availability  for  different  purposes.  Certain  proportions 
of  carbon  or  sulphur  in  the  metal,  for  example,  render 
it  unsuitable  for  steel  making ;  impurities  may  make 
iron  unmalleable  or  too  brittle  for  many  purposes.  The 
most  valuable  ores  are  compounds  of  iron  and  oxygen,  as 
magnetite,  the  purest  form  of  iron,  or  hematite,  the  best 
for  steel  making.     The  products  that  result  from  smelting 


Fig.  60. 


122 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


these  different  ores  form  the  various  kinds  of  iron  in  the 
market.* 

The  United    States  produces  one  third  of  the  world's 
iron  (Fig.  61).     While  twenty -four  states  and  territories 


UNITED  STATES 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


FRANCE 
BELGIUM 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  61.— Pig-iron  production  by  countries,  in 
in  million  tons. 


contribute  to  the  iron-ore  output,  the  five  iron-ore  districts 
of  Lake  Superior  supply  about  two  thirds  of  all  the  ore 
mined,  and  the  southern  Appalachian  region,  between  Mary- 
land and  Birmingham,  Ala.,  most  of  the  remainder.  The 
cost  of  iron  ore  was  reduced  one  third,  in  the  ten  years  end- 
ing in  1898,  by  machinery,  which  cheapened  the  cost  of  min- 
ing, handling,  and  transportation.  Thus  much  of  the  Lake 
Superior  ores  (Fig.  62)  is  shoveled  from  open  pits  by  steam 
shovels,  which  dump  the  ore  into  railroad  cars,  the  output 
of  each  shovel  per  day  being  1,500  to  2,000  tons,  costing 
from  10  to  50  cents  a  ton  to  mine.  The  cost  of  under- 
ground mining  has  been  reduced  to  $1  or  less  a  ton.  The 
ore  is  carried  on  the  cars  to  the  neighboring  shipping 
ports    on   Lakes   Superior  and  Michigan.     It  is  dumped 

*  Because  iron  is  a  commodity  largely  used  in  nearly  all  industrial 
enterprises  the  material  condition  of  a  nation  is  gauged  to  a  great  ex- 
tent Vjy  the  amount  of  iron  and  steel  it  consumes.  The  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  consuming  annually  about  300  pounds  of  iron  and 
steel  per  capita,  lead  the  world.  In  1885  the  world's  consumption  was 
32  pounds  per  capita;  in  South  America,  13.5  pounds;  Egypt,  7.55; 
India,  3.4, 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


123 


into  bunkers  at  the  docks,  and  when  the  doors  are  opened 
slides  down  chutes  into  the  hatches  of  the  ore  ships,  many 
of  which  carry  6,000   tons  of  ore.      Over  3,000  tons   are 


Fig.  62.— At  the  close  of  1898  the  Marquette  Range  had  produced  52,000,000  tons  of 
iron  ore,  more  than  one  third  of  the  total  product  of  the  five  Lake  Superior  iron- 
ore  ranges  since  mining  began  in  that  region.  Observe  the  proximity  of  the  mines 
to  water  transportation  and  the  railroads  connecting  them  with  the  shipping  ports. 
Most  of  the  ores  adapted  for  steel  making  come  from  these  mines.  The  most 
important  shipping  ports  are  Duluth,  Two  Harbors,  Ashland,  Marquette,  and 
Escanaba,  which  usually  ship  over  2.000,000  tons  each  per  annum.  Observe  the 
Copper  Range,  which  is  the  second  largest  source  of  copper  in  the  country. 

loaded  in  fifty-five  minutes.  The  unloading  at  the  ore- 
receiving  ports  (Fig.  63)  is  very  expeditious.  Machinery 
is  beginning  to  supplant  hand  labor  in  filling  the  buckets 
for  landing.  Freights,  both  by  lake  and  rail,  are  usually 
very  cheap>  thus  neutralizing  the  disadvantage  of  the  long 
distance  between  the  mines  and  the  coke  required  to  smelt 
the  ore.  The  ore  is  carried  to  the  coke  because  it  is  more 
convenient  and  cheaper  to  build  and  operate  blast  fur- 
naces and  rolling  mills  near  the  great  markets  for  iron 
and  steel. 

In  the  Birmingham,  Ala.,  district,  iron  ore  and  the  coke- 
making  coal  and  limestone  needed  for  iron  smelting  are  in 
juxtaposition  (Fig.  64),  and  thus  the  co.st  of  iron  making 
is  much  reduced.     The  iroji  ore  from  Lake  Superior  and 


1 1^4 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  Southern  states  supplies  about  nine  tenths  of  the  pig 


iron. 


Very  little  iron  and  steel  are  imported  into  the  United 
States.  The  great  advantages  this  country  possesses  for 
cheap  mining  and  manufacturing  enable  it  to  supply  not  only 
home  manufacturers  with  practically  all  the  iron  and  steel 


IBOX  ORE  SHIPPIXG  BOUTES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


Fig.  63. — The  map  shows  the  routes  through  the  lakes  from  the  shipping  to  the  receiv- 
ing ports.  As  most  of  the  ore  is  sent  to  smelters  in  eastern  Ohio  and  western 
Pennsylvania,  the  receiving  ports  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie  are  of  largest 
importance.  A  railroad  between  Conneaut  and  Pittsburg  carries  nothing  tnit 
iron  ore.  Lake  Michigan  ports,  mainly  South  Chicago  and  Milwaukee,  also  re- 
ceive large  quantities  of  ore.  The  distance  from  the  mines  to  Pittsburg,  where 
the  larger  part  of  the  ore  is  used,  is  nearly  1.000  miles;  but  so  economically  are  all 
operations  conducted  that  Lake  Superior  ores  are  often  mined  and  sold  on  cars  at 
Lake  Erie  ports  for  $2  to  $.3..50  a  ton.  The  map  also  indicates  the  iron-ore  and 
pig-iron  output  of  the  chief  producing  states. 

they  need,  but  also  to  export  them  in  increasing  quantities. 
As  most  of  the  iron  and  steel  are  made  in  the  East,  where  it  is 
convenient  to  bring  the  iron,  coal,  and  limestone  together, 
so  also  most  of  the  commodities  made  of  iron  and  steel  arc 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


125 


0      1-2345 


manufactured  in  the  same  region  near  the  largest  sources 
of  metal  supply.     The  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  prod- 
ucts and  the  trade 
in  them  are  treated 
in  Chapter  XIV. 

About  two 
thirds  of  the  Lake 
Superior  ore  is 
smelted  at  or  near 
Pittsburg,  the 
greatest  center  of 
the  iron  and  steel 
industries  ;  and 
most  of  the  remain- 
der in  the  iron- 
smelting  districts 
of  Ohio,  notably 
in  the  Mahoning 
Valley,  in  the  She- 
nango  Valley  of 
Pennsylvania,  and 
at  South  Chicago. 

The  blast  furnace  in  which  iron  ore  is  smelted  is  built 
as  high  as  one  hundred  feet  or  more.  It  is  fed  at  the  top 
of  the  shaft  with  ore,  coke,  and  limestone  while  a  hot  blast 
is  driven  through  the  mixture  by  engines.  One  and  two 
thirds  tons  of  ore,  less  than  a  ton  of  coke,  and  a  half  ton  of 
limestone  are  used  to  produce  a  ton  of  pig  iron.  The  lime- 
stone, melting  in  the  intense  heat  of  the  furnace,  helps  the 
fusion  of  the  ore  and  forms  a  paste  with  the  slag  or  earthy 
matter  that  has  been  separated  from  the  metal.  The  mol- 
ten iron,  being  heaviest,  drops  through  the  mass  of  lime- 
stone and  slag  to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  where  it  runs 
off  into  molds  and  hardens  into  pig  iron.  The  best  situa- 
tions for  blast  furnaces  are,  of  cour^,  where  ore,  coke,  and 
limestone  may  most  conveniently  be  brought  to  them. 


Fig.  04. — Biriniiigliani,  Ala.,  built  on  the  site  of  a  for- 
mer cotton  field,  is  the  largest  center  of  iron  and 
coal  mining,  blast  furnaces,  and  rolling  mills  in  the 
South,  because  it  has  at  its  doors  large  supplies  of 
coal,  iron  ore,  and  limestone.  Steel  works  were 
opened  at  Ensley  in  1899 ;  but  few  of  the  ores  are 
Bessemer  or  steel-making  ores  ;  Birmingham  ores 
are  used  mainly  for  the  manufacture  of  foundry 
iron. 


;^26  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Some  commodities,  such  as  stoves,  are  made  simply  of 
pig  iron  melted  (cast  iron)  and  run  into  molds  giving  it  the 
desired  shape.  Cast  iron  is  brittle,  and  a  hard  blow  breaks 
it;  but  when  pig  iron  is  melted  and  the  molten  mass  is 
raked  to  drive  out  most  of  the  carbon,  the  resulting  prod- 
uct is  wrought  or  malleable  iron,  which  is  rolled  out  in  roll- 
ing mills  into  bars,  sheets,  and  other  forms  used  by  manu- 
facturers. \Yrought  iron  is  now  of  less  importance  than 
formerly,  as  steel  has  taken  its  place  in  many  manufac- 
tures. 

Steel  is  harder,  stronger,  and  more  durable  than  iron, 
and  therefore  more  useful ;  and  as  its  cost  per  ton  is  less 
than  one  sixth  its  cost  in  1858,  it  has  supplanted  iron  for 
very  many  purposes  (Fig.  65).     Steel-making  was  very  ex- 


)                 1 

1 

2 

3               4               5               6               7               8               9 

11            1            1            1            1            1 

UNITED  STATES 

GERMANY  AND 

FRANCE 

■ 

BELGIUM 

.. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

_ 

RUSSIA  AND  FINLAND 
,  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

— " 

Fig.  65. 

—Steel  production  by  countries,  in  1898,  in 
million  tons. 

pensive  till  the  late  Henry  Bessemer,  about  1860,  proved 
the  success  of  his  method  of  converting  pig  iron  into  steel 
and  revolutionized  the  iron  industry.  Bessemer  and  later 
inventors  devised  methods  for  cheaply  burning  out  most  of 
the  carbon  in  pig  iron  till  the  metal  becomes  steel.  As 
much  as  five  per  cent  carbon  is  often  present  in  pig  iron, 
while  steel  rails  usually  contain  less  than  one  half  per  cent. 
Steel  has  taken  the  place  of  iron  for  nearly  all  structural 
purposes,  as  in  ships,  boilers,  the  framework  of  buildings, 
and  for  rails,  wire  nails,  hoops,  tin  plates,  and  many  other 
articles.  . 


■"'ki 


m 


■^•' 


/T. 

^ 

'~' 

a 

^ 

t« 

ii 

a 

^ 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


12Y 


Tin  is  one  of  the  most  sparsely  distributed  metals  (Figs.  7 
and  66).  It  is  a  bright,  soft  metal,  used  in  many  alloys 
to  produce  bronzes,  britannia  metal,  and  pewter,  but  its 
chief  use  is  in  coating  sheet  iron  or  sheet  steel  to  make  tin 
plate,  from  which  the  many  utensils  known  as  tinware  are 
made.     Since  1891  the  United  States  has  made  most  of  its 


STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS 

BANKA  AND  BILLITON 

ENGLAND 

BOLIVIA 

TASMANIA 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  66.— Tin  production  by  countries,  in  1897,  in 
thousand  metric  tons. 


tin  plate.  It  is  sold  for  about  one  fifth  less  than  the  price 
formerly  paid  for  imported  tin-plate.  Practically  all  the 
product  of  more  than  three  hundred  tin-plate  mills  in  the 
country  is  consumed  at  home.  The  imports  of  tin  amount 
to  about  $8,000,000  a  year. 

FOREIGN   COAL  TRADE   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 
Bituminous  Coal  Imports  (in  Million  Dollars) 


1899. 


1899. 


From  British  North  America.  .     3     All  countries 3.j 


Coal  Exports  (in  Million  Dollars) 


1899. 

To  Briti-sh  North  America  . .   12.5 

Mexico 1.4 


1899. 

To  Cuba 0.6 

All  countries 15.7 


Production  of  Pktroleu.m  in  1898  (in  Million  Barrels) 


Russia GO .  5 

United  States  (1899) 57.0 

Austria-Hungary  (1897) 3.2 

Sumatra  (refined) 1.2 

Canada 0.8 


liumania 0.8 

Germany 0.2 

India  (1897) 0.5 

•Java 0.5 


/ 


128 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


United  States  Exports  of  Mineral  Oil  (in  Million  Dollars)  * 

1899. 

To  United  Kiiigddin 13.2 

Germany 8.3 

France 1.4 

Other  Europe 16.0 

Japan 3.5 

China 2.3 

East  Indies  (Britisli) 1.4 

British  Australasia 2.6 


To  Brazil 1.6 

Other  Asia  and  Oceania  .  1.6 

Hong-Kong 1.6 

Africa 1.5 

Argentina 1.2 

British  North  America. .  0.9 

Ail  countries 59 . 4 


Iron  Ore  mined  in  1898  in  the  United  States  (in  Million  Tons) 

Lake  Superior 14.0 

Southern  states ...     5.0 

Other  states 1.6 

Total 20.6 


Pig-Iron  Production  in  the  United  States  (in  Million  Tons) 


1810. 

1864. 

1886. 

1898. 

0.05 

1 

5 

11.8 

*  Kerosene  is  about  six  sevenths  of  the  total,  and  lubricating  oils 
are  most  of  the  remainder.  Nearly  forty  per  cent  of  the  kerosene  pro- 
duced was  exported  to  foreign  markets. 


CHAPTEE   XIII 

THE  UNITED  STATES~{Continued) 

Precious   Metals,   Other  Metals   and   Minerals, 
AND   THE   Trade  in   them 

Copper  is,  next  to  silver,  the  best  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity.  The  United  States  produces  more  than  half  of 
the  world's  copper  supply  (Figs.  6  and  67).     It  is  found 


1 

<       1       1       1 

50                           100                          150                          200 

1            1            .            1            T            1            ,            ,            ,            ,            1            ,            ,            ,            ,            1            ,            1            1            1 

UNITED  STATES 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 

CHILE 

..I.. 

JAPAN 

— i— 

GERMANY 

*« 

AUSTRALASIA 

_ 

MEXICO 

i^ 

CANADA 

m, 

RUSSIA 

. 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

,      Fig.  67 

—Copper  production  in  1898,  in  thousand  long  tons. 

pure,  as  in  the  Keweenaw  peninsula.  Lake  Superior  (Fig. 
G2),  which  long  supplied  all  the  copper  mined  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  still  one  of  the  largest  sources  of 
the  metal  in  the  world.  The  pure  copper  of  Lake  Superior 
is  distributed  through  the  rocks  in  sheets  or  fine  particles; 
this  rock  is  raised  to  the  surface,  much  of  it  from  great 
depths,  and  crushed  to  get  the  metal.  Most  copper,  how- 
ever, is  found  in  the  form  of  ores,  as  in  Montana  and 
Arizona.  The  mines  near  Butte  and  Anaconda,  in  south- 
y  129 


130  COxMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

west  Montana,  are  now  the  largest  sources  of  copper.  All 
copper  ores  are  difficult  to  reduce,  but  such  improvements 
liave  been  made  in  American  processes  that  the  United 
States  now  smelts  not  only  its  own  ores,  but  also  many  for- 
eign ores,  the  resulting  copper  being  shipped  back  to  its 
owners.  The  furnaces  that  smelt  the  ores  of  Montana  and 
Arizona  often  treat  over  400  tons  of  ore  a  day. 

As  copper  is  a  fine  conductor  of  electricity  and  is 
cheaper  than  silver,  it  is  the  most  useful  metal  in  the  elec- 
trical industries.  The  new  use  of  electricity  to  transmit 
power  has  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  the  metal. 
This  country  uses  a  large  amount  of  copper  in  making  wire 
for  electrical  purposes.  A  great  deal  of  the  metal  is  also 
used  in  sheathing  ships  and  making  coins  and  brass,  one  of 
the  most  useful  of  alloys.  All  European  countries  have  to 
import  copper,  and  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, in  particular,  are  very  large  buyers  of  our  copper  in- 
gots, bars,  and  plates  ready  for  manufacturing.  Europe 
takes  nearly  all  the  copper  we  have  to  sell,  which  is  some- 
times half  of  the  output  (p.  137). 

Brass,  next  to  iron,  is  the  most  important  metal  used  in 
the  arts.  A  large  part  of  the  copper  output  is  alloyed  with 
zinc  to  produce  brass,  whose  acceptable  color  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  worked  make  it  desirable  for  fittings  in 
buildings,  tubes,  machine  trimmings,  musical  instruments, 
and  other  purposes.  Most  of  the  rolling  mills  that  pro- 
duce sheet 'brass  ready  for  manufacturing  are  in  the  Xauga- 
tuck  valley  of  northwest  Connecticut;  the  factories  that 
make  copper  wire  or  turn  sheet  brass  into  many  prod- 
ucts are  scattered  widely  over  the  Xorthern  states  from 
Boston  to  Chicago.  The  value  of  their  manufactures  is 
about  $40,000,000  a  year. 

Bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  is  used  for  bells, 
statuary,  screw  propellers,  and  other  purposes. 

Gold  is  one  of  the  few  metals  that  is  often  found  pure. 
Most  of  it,  however,  is  alloyed  with  other  metals,  chiefly 


THE   UNITED  STATES 


131 


silver.  It  occurs  in  veins,  in  quartz  and  other  rocks,  and 
is  obtained  by  crushing  and  smelting  the  rock  (quartz  min- 
ing). A  great  deal  of  gold  freed  from  the  rock  by  water, 
heat,  cold,  and  other  disintegrating  influences  is  mixed 
with  gravel  and  sand  in  the  beds  of  streams  or  on  the  sea- 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  REP. 

UNITED  STATES 

AUSTRALASIA  (?  COLS.) 

RUSSIA 

CANADA 

MEXICO 

INDIA 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  68. — Gold  production  by  coun- 
tries in  1898,  in  million  dollars. 


shore,  and  is  obtained  by  washing  (placer  mining).  The 
world's  production,  rapidly  increasing  in  recent  years,  is 
nearly  1300,000,000  a  year  (Figs.  6  and  08).  The  United 
States  was  long  foremost  in  gold  production,  but  in  1898 
the  South  African  Eepublic  attained  the  first  place.   Nearly 


COLORADO 
CALIFORNIA 
SOUTH  DAKOTA 
MONTANA 
NEVADA 


I       I       I       I       I       I       I 


Fig.  69.— United  States  gold  pro- 
duction in  1898,  in  million  dol- 
lars. 


all  the  gold  mined  in  this  country  comes  from  Western 
states  and  territories  including,  Alaska  (Fig.  09). 

The  beauty  and  value  of  gold  make  it  highly  prized  for 
ornamentation.  About  a  fifth  of  the  product,  therefore,  is 
annually  consumed  in  the  arts,  France  occupying  the  first 
place  in  this  use  of  the   metal,  followed    by  the  United 


132^  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Kingdom  and  the  United  States  (p.  138).  As  the  metal 
is  too  soft  to  be  used  pure,  it  is  alloyed  with  silver  or  cop- 
per. The  quantity  of  alloy  added  to  gold  in  jewelry  is 
from  12  to  over  50  per  cent.  Pure  gold  is  called  24  carats 
fine.  When  there  are  equal  parts  of  gold  and  alloy  the 
mixture  is  12  carats  fine. 

Most  of  the  gold  output  is  coined.  It  is  the  standard 
money  of  many  nations.  Its  great  advantage  as  money  is 
that  usually  it  can  not  be  obtained  without  great  labor,  and 
that  it  fluctuates  little  in  value.  The  average  output  per 
miner  does  not  often  exceed  $6  to  112  a  week,  and,  count- 
ing wages  and  cost  of  machinery,  a  dollar  is  believed  to  be 
expended  for  each  dollar's  worth  of  gold  produced.  Many 
mines  are  very  profitable,  but  we  hear  little  of  the  large 
sums  expended  in  unprofitable  mining. 

Silver  is  found  in  ores  combined  with  lead,  sulphur,  or 
other  elements  (Fig.  6).  All  civilized  nations  use  it  for 
small  coins,  and  it  is  the  monetary  standard  in  many  coun- 
tries. Silver  also  is  very  largely  used  in  the  arts  (p.  138). 
Its  price  has  been  declining  for  thirty  years  (p.  138). 
Because  the  value  of  gold  is  nearly  constant,  while  that  of 


UNITED  STATES 

MEXICO 

AUSTRALASIA 

GERMANY 

BOLIVIA 

SPAIN 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 


Fig.  70.— Silver  production  by  countries 
in  1898,  in  million  dollars. 


silver  is  subject  to  fluctuations,  gold  is  a  more  reliable 
standard  of  values.  Our  Western  states  and  territories, 
to  which  silver  mining  in  this  country  is  confined,  make 
the  United  States  first  in  silver  production  (Figs.  70 
and  71). 


THE  UNITED  STATES  ;I33 

All  large  trading  countries  send  gold  or  silver  coin  or 
bullion  to  foreign  lands  to  settle  trade  balances.  Thus  the 
imports  of  coin  and  bullion  in  the  United  States  exceed 


1           1 

1           1 

,,,,!,«,,,,¥ 

ARIZONA 

OTHER  STATES 
AND  TERRITORIES 



Fig.  ri 

—United  States  silver  production  in  1808,  in 
million  dollars. 

the  exports  partly  because  this  country  sells  more  com- 
modities to  many  foreign  lands  than  it  buys  from  them. 

Manufactures  of  jewelry  and  other  wares  made  of  gold 
and  silver  are  large  industries  in  the  United  States. 
They  are  mainly  situated  in  the  East.  Providence,  R.  I., 
leads  in  the  production  of  jewelry.  Some  Western  cities, 
as  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  San  Francisco,  have  become 
prominent  in  gold  and  silver  products.  The  watches  made 
in  Massachusetts,  Illinois,  and  Xew  Jersey  have  cut  off 
most  of  the  imports  from  Switzerland.  Silver  plating,  a 
larger  industry  than  jewelry  manufacture,  is  mainly  cen- 
tered in  Connecticut.  Electro-metallurgy  has  greatly  re- 
duced the  cost  of  plating,  so  that  plated  ware  is  now  within 
the  reach  of  a  larger  public  than  formerly. 

The  export  of  gold  and  silver  manufactures  is  small, 
but  in  prosperous  times  the  imports  are  very  large,  most  of 
the  jewelry  coming  from  France. 

The  diamond  is,  except  the  finest  rubies,  the  most  costly 
of  precious  stones.  South  Africa  and  Brazil  are  now  the 
only  sources  of  diamonds  (Fig.  7).  Xearly  all  the  world's 
supply  since  1807  has  been  received  from  the  Kimberley 
mines,  Cape  Colony,  where  the  yearly  output  is  sold  in 
March  to  London  buyers,  who  sell  most  of  the  rough  stones 
to  Belgian  and  Amsterdam  cutters.    Several  million  dollars 


-1^34  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

worth  of  uncut  diamonds  are  imported  into  this  country 
every  year.  The  value  of  the  cut  diamond  imports  is 
about  twice  that  of  the  rough  stones,  which  are  on  the  free 
list.  The  black  diamond,  mined  only  in  Brazil,  is  used  in 
diamond  drills  and  for  other  abrasive  purposes.* 

Zinc  is  a  hard  metal,  most  used  in  making  brass  and  coat- 
ing iron  (galvanized  iron)  and  copper  for  protective  purposes. 
The  largest  source  of  home  supply  is  in  the  Galena-Joplin 
district  of  Kansas  and  Missouri,  which  furnishes  about  half 
the  output  (p.  138).  When  zinc  is  subjected  to  intense 
heat  a  powder,  called  zinc  white,  is  produced,  which  is  used 
as  a  basis  for  paints.  The  country  imports  a  small  quan- 
tity of  zinc  to  supplement  its  home  supplies.f 

Aluminium  forms  about  one  fifteenth  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth.  The  difficulty  of  extracting  it  from  its  various  com- 
pounds made  it  too  costly  for  general  use  until  recent 
years.     The  price  has  been  reduced  from  $8    a  pound  in 


*  Among  other  precious  stones  is  the  ruby,  of  which  Burmah  is 
the  main  source  of  supply.  The  only  turquoise  mines  on  a  large  scale 
are  near  Nishapur,  Persia.  Emeralds  are  found  in  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, in  South  America,  and  in  some  other  regions.  This  country  im- 
ports nearly  all  the  precious  stones  in  the  jewelry  trade.  Most  of  the 
turquoise,  tourmaline,  sapphire,  and  opals  mined  here  find  their  way 
into  mineral  cabinets. 

f  Salt  is  produced  in  most  parts  of  the  world  (p.  138).  It  is  used 
as  a  condiment,  as  a  preservative  of  foods  and  hides,  and  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  soda,  glass,  and  other  articles.  On  the  coasts  of  warm 
countries  sea  water  is  evaporated  in  shallow  tanks  under  the  sun's  rays, 
and  in  colder  countries  artificial  heat  is  used  to  produce  sea  salt.  In 
many  regions  brine  springs  are  tapped  by  boring,  the  brine  is  artifi- 
cially evaporated,  and  most  of  the  product  is  known  as  common  salt. 
Mines  in  Austria-Hungary,  England,  and  some  other  lands  yield 
masses  of  solid  or  rock  salt.  The  United  States  produces  sea  salt  from 
lagoons  in  Massachusetts  and  California,  and  rock  salt  in  several  states ; 
but  most  of  the  product  of  this  country  is  common  salt  obtained  from 
brine  wells  (p.  138).  As  salt  is  so  widely  distributed  it  is  not  an  article 
of  large  international  commerce.  This  country  neither  imports  nor 
exports  important  quantities. 


The  united  states  135 

1888  to  35  cents  a  pound,  and  the  strength,  malleability, 
and  lightness  of  this  silver-white  metal  has  led  to  its  use 
for  many  purposes.  It  is  replacing  copper  to  some  extent 
as  an  electrical  conductor,  and  is  used  in  many  articles  in 
the  place  of  wood,  iron,  brass,  and  zinc.  This  country 
produces  half  of  the  world's  output  and  exports  a  small 
amount  of  the  metal  and  its  manufactures. 

Sulphur  is  found  mainly  in  volcanic  regions.  Most  of  the 
supply  comes  from  Sicily  and  South  Italy.  Refined  sul- 
phur is  the  brimstone  of  commerce.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  in  medicine,  and  for  vulcan- 
izing rubber.  One  of  its  most  important  uses  is  in  the 
production  of  sulphuric  acid  or  oil  of  vitriol,  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  chemicals.  Sulphuric  acid  is  an  essential 
agent  in  the  manufacture  of  many  of  the  most  common 
and  useful  articles,  such  as  glass,  aniline  colors,  phos- 
phorus, from  which  matches  are  made,  and  kerosene.  Few 
materials  more  largely  enhance  the  comfort  and  luxury  of 
life  than  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphur  is  mined  in  Utah,  Ne- 
vada, and  Louisiana,  but  the  total  product  is  comparatively 
small  (p.  138)  and  the  imports  from  Italy  (duty  free)  are  con- 
sequently large. 

Lead  enters  largely  into  the  trade  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  very  soft  metal,  used  for  roofing,  water  pipes,  and  other 
purposes,  and  is  produced  most  largely  in  the  silver-mining 
regions  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is  combined  with  sil- 
ver ores.  This  country  and  the  United  Kingdom  consume 
four  sevenths  of  the  world's  supply,  our  imports  coming 
almost  wholly  from  Mexico ;  Spain,  the  second  largest  pro- 
ducer, sends  nearly  all  her  product  to  England.  The  most 
important  preparation  of  tlio  metal  is  white  lead,  used  as  a 
basis  for  colors,  and  thus  a  valnal)le  ingredient  in  paints. 
White  lead  is  manufactured  in  many  of  our  larger  cities.* 

*  Pewter  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  used  in  cheap  table  ware. 

Mercury  or  quicksilver  is  used  in  extraclirig  gold  and  in  the  maiiufac- 


130  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Phosphate  rock  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Florida,  South 
Carolina,  and  Tennessee  produce  1,000,000  tons  a  year,  half 
of  the  world's  supply.  A  third  of  the  product,  mostly 
from  Florida,  is  shipped  to  Europe,  Germany  being  the 
largest  buyer.  Xitrate  of  soda,  largely  imported  from 
Chile  to  Europe  as  a  fertilizer,  is  used  to  much  less  extent 
in  the  United  States. 

Limestone,  granite,  sandstone,  and  slate  are  the  most  use- 
ful varieties  of  stone.  Stone  quarrying  is  one  of  the  large 
industries  of  this  country.  Limestone  is  quarried  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  its  varieties  are  used  for 

ture  of  looking  glasses,  thermometers,  and  a  few  other  articles.  The 
quicksilver  mines  of  California  supply  the  home  demand,  and  a  consid- 
erable quantity  is  exported  (p.  138).  Manganese,  closely  resembling 
iron,  is  valued  as  an  alloy  in  the  production  of  some  kinds  of  steel. 
The  Southern  states  mine  one  fifth  of  the  manganese  used,  and  Russia, 
Brazil,  Cuba,  and  some  other  countries  send  about  $600,000  worth  a 
year.  Nickel  is  alloyed  with  other  metals  in  making  small  coins,  with 
copper  to  produce  German  silver,  and  with  steel  in  the  manufacture 
of  armor  plate.  New  Caledonia  produces  more  than  half  of  the  world's 
supply  and  Canada  most  of  the  remainder.  The  nickel  used  in  the 
United  States  comes  from  the  Sudbury  mines  in  Canada.  Cobalt, 
mined  in  New  Caledonia,  Australia,  and  Germany,  is  used  in  the  arts, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  an  oxide,  to  produce  a  vivid  blue  color  that  is  not 
affected  by  atmospheric  changes,  and  is  employed  in  painting,  printing 
bank  bills,  and  decorating  glass  and  porcelain.  Much  of  the  ore,  car- 
ried as  ballast  to  London  by  ships  laden  with  wool  from  Australia,  is 
smelted  in  Europe  and  this  country.  Graphite,  or  plumbago,  a  form 
of  carbon  used  for  lead  pencils  and  other  purposes,  is  mainly  derived 
from  Ceylon,  which  supplies  this  country  with  most  of  its  imports. 
The  smaller  domestic  supply  comes  chiefly  from  Ticonderoga.  X.  Y. 
Factories  in  Xew  York  and  Jersey  City  turn  out  nearly  1.000.000  lead 
pencils  a  day.  They  are  sold  all  over  the  world  and  supply  most  of 
the  home  demand.  Platinum  is  specially  valuable  for  chemical  ap- 
paratus, because  it  is  not  injured  by  acids.  The  mines  in  the  Ural 
Mountains  supply  only  about  12,000  pounds  a  year,  which  is  nearly  the 
total  output.  Under  these  circumstances  the  mineral  is  very  costly. 
This  country  paid  $170  a  pound  for  all  it  imported  in  1897.  Saltpeter, 
one  of  the  ingredients  of  gunpowder,  comes  mainly  from  northern  India. 


THE   UNITED  STATES  137 

many  purposes,  such  as  structural  materials,  a  flux  for 
smelting  iron,  lead  and  copper  ores,  and  the  making  of 
lime  and  cement.  Marhle,  produced  mainly  in  Vermont, 
is  used  for  monuments  and  building  material.  The  Jsew 
England  states  produce  more  than  half  of  the  granite 
which  is  used  for  buildings,  bridge  work,  and  other  struc- 
tural purposes.  Most  of  the  sandstone,  including  the 
brown  stone  much  used  in  Eastern  cities  for  house  fronts, 
is  quarried  in  Ohio,  Xew  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Connec- 
ticut. The  only  American  stone  that  is  exported  to  any 
considerable  extent  is  slate,  used  mainly  for  roofing  pur- 
poses, and  produced  in  largest  quantities  in  the  Xorth  At- 
lantic states. 

Clay  products  are  among  the  largest  mineral  industries. 
Over  8,000  establishments  making  brick,  sewer  pipe,  drain 
tile,  stone  ware,  and  other  articles  are  scattered  through 
every  part  of  the  Union,  and  the  value  of  their  output, 
surpassed  only  by  the  value  of  coal  and  iron,  amounted  in 
1898  to  over  $58,000,000.  The  clay  known  as  kaolin  is  used 
in  paper  making  to  give  weight  and  a  good  surface  for 
printing,  and  also  in  the  manufacture  of  china  ware.  The 
largest  pottery  manufactures  are  at  Trenton,  X.  J.,  and  at 
East  Liverpool,  Ohio ;  these  markets  regulate  the  prices  in 
this  country  for  china  clays.  Thirty  factories  in  Trenton 
make  both  white  and  decorated  wares.  Our  china  products 
have  scarcely  begun  to  seek  foreign  markets,  and  a  large 
amount  of  foreign  stone  and  china  ware  is  still  imported. 

United  States  Copper  Output  in  1898  (in  Thousand  Long  Tons) 
Montana.  Michigan.  Arizona.  California.  Colorado.  Total. 

97  70  49.5  9.5  5  239 

United  States  Exports  of  Copper  in  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 
United  Kingdom.  France.  Germany.  Other  Europe.  Total. 

8.3  9.7  8.3  14.7  41.3 

1804.        1871.         1890. 
Price  of  copper  per  pound  in  cents 55  25  17 


12S  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Annual  Consumption  of  Gold  in  the  Arts  (in  Thousand 
Pounds  Avoirdupois) 

United     United     Ger-    Switzer-  .^„.      Rii««in     Belgrium  and    Austria- 
France.  Kingdom.  States,  many.     land.     ^^^^^-   Russia.        Holland.      Hungary 

35.2        34.1       30.8     29.0     18.9     11.0     9.0  6.8  6.2 

Annual  Consumption  of  Silver  in  the  Arts  (in  Thousand 
Pounds  Avoirdupois) 

United  States.  Germany.  France.  England.  Russia. 

555  330  330  308  209 

1871.       1881.      1891.      1896.       1898. 
Average  value  of  bar  silver  per  ounce 

in  dollars  (gold) 1.32     1.13     0.98     0.67    0.59 

Zinc  Production  in  1897  (in  Thousand  Metric  Tons) 

Germany.  Belgium.  United  States.  France.  Total. 

151  116  104  24  468 


Salt  Production  in  1897  (in  Million  Short  Tons) 

Ss.  Kyn^g^ol.    R»--    «™j--    France.    India.    Spain,     ^us^^^a^     Total. 
2.2         2.1  1.7  1.3  1.1  1         0.6  0.6         11.2 

United  States  Salt  Production  in  1898  (in  Million  Barrels) 


New  York. 

Michigan. 

Kansas. 

Ohio. 

CaUfornia. 

Total. 

6.8 

5.3 

1.9 

0.7 

0.7 

17.6 

Sulphur  Production  in  1897  (in  Thousand  Metric  Tons) 

Italy.  Japan.  Spain.  United  States  (1898). 

497  12.5  3.5  3.7 


Quicksilver  Production  in  1898  (in  Metric  Tons) 


Spain. 

United  States. 

Austria. 

Mexico. 

Russia. 

Total. 

1,681 

1,058 

494 

353 

362 

3.948 

\ 


x;     - 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE    UNITED    STATES  iContiniied) 
)lSTEIBUTION     OF     MANUFACTURES  —  COXDITIOXS     THAT 

FAVOR  Manufacturing  Development — Machixery, 
Leather,  Boots  and  Shoes,  Clothing,  Glass,  etc. 

The  United  States  holds  the  first  place  as  a  manufacturing 
lation.  In  the  last  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
)rodnction  of  manufactures  in  the  United  States  was 
learly  double  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  About  nine 
enths  of  the  country's  manufactures  are  consumed  at 
lome,  and  yet  a  vast  quantity  of  foreign  manufactures  is 
,lso  imported.  The  value  of  the  home  market  has  been 
nuch  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  people  of  the  United 
>tates  spend  more  per  capita  for  necessaries  and  luxuries 
ban  any  other  nation  (p.  147).  Large  manufacturing 
levelopment  indicates  the  greatest  material  prosperity,  as 
he  percentage  of  profit  is  much  greater  on  manufactures 
han  on  raw  substances.  The  French,  for  examjile,  turn 
■aw  materials  from  other  lands  into  many  tasteful  and 
)leasing  articles,  and  make  a  much  larger  profit  on  tlieni 
ihan  on  unmanufactured  substances. 

Various  causes  influence  the  distribution  of  manufacturing, 
^ills  and  factories  are  usually  found  wlierevcr  raw  iiiate- 
•ial  and  good  markets  are  easily  accessible  ;  tlie  flour  indus- 
ry,  for  instance,  has  steadily  moved  westward  to  the  (J rent 
liakes  and  to  the  Mississippi  Valley,  till  its  great  center 
8  now  Minneapolis,  on  the  threshold  of  the  hard-wheat 
•egion. 

139 


140  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  early  manufactures  of  America,  such  as  hand  spin- 
ning, weaving,  hlacksmithing,  ship  and  house  building, 
develojjed  along  the  seacoast  where  the  colonists  had  their 
homes.  The  people  planted  settlements  inland  along 
waterways,  built  towns  on  the  banks  of  the  Erie  Canal, 
fringed  the  lake  shores  with  their^homes,  and  finally  spread 
railroads  and  telegraphs  over  the  land.  These  lines  of 
penetration  became  the  pathways  along  which  manufactur- 
ing industries  advanced. 

Water  power  played  a  very  important  part  in  distribut- 
ing manufactures  before  steam  was  used.  It  gave  indus- 
trial pre-eminence  to  Xew  England,  and  made  manufactur- 
ing towns  of  Trenton,  Philadeljihia,  Eichmond,  Columbia, 
Augusta,  and  many  other  places.  A  great  future  is  open- 
ing to  water  power  in  the  electrical  transmission  of  its 
motive  force.  Thus  water  power  eighty  miles  from  Los 
Angeles  is  now  utilized  in  that  city.  Only  a  small  part  of 
the  country's  vast  water  power  is  as  yet  used. 

Some  industries  are  situated  near  others  that  use  most 
of  their  product.  Thus  the  chemical  industries  of  the 
United  States  are  situated,  to  a  large  extent,  near  the  tex- 
tile manufacturing  centers,  dyeing  and  bleaching  works,  oil 
refineries,  fertilizer  factories,  etc.,  that  are  the  main  markets 
for  their  jiroducts. 

The  principal  industrial  regions,  on  the  whole,  are  those 
that  are  most  thickly  populated  (Fig.  31).  Manufacturing 
is  therefore  most  prominent  in  the  northeast,  the  states  of 
Xew  York,  Pennsylvania,  Xew  Jersey,  and  Xew  England 
producing  more  than  half  the  manufactures  of  the  country. 
Maryland,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Indiana  follow. 
The  Southern  states  and  those  beyond  the  ^lississippi  are 
also  developing  many  industries.  With  their  advantages 
in  the  cheapness  of  labor  and  fuel,  the  Southern  states 
have,  in  the  last  few  years,  invested  81,000,000,000  in  facto- 
ries and  machinery.  Their  cotton,  iron,  and  steel  indus- 
tries have  been  greatly  developed. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  141 

As  population  grows  the  variety  of  manufactures  increases. 

Twenty-five  years  ago  the  manufactures  of  the  Western 
states  were  mainly  for  hard  usage  and  everyday  utility,  but 
Western  factories  now  serve  the  refinements  and  luxuries 
as  well  as  the  utilities  of  life.  In  1875  piano-making  was 
limited  to  Xew  York,  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia, 
but  in  1894  Chicago  had  taken  the  third  place  in  the  num- 
ber of  pianos  produced,  and  BufEalo,  Rochester,  Cincinnati, 
and  other  interior  cities  were  prominent  in  this  line.  In 
1860  no  AVesteru  city  manufactured  jewelry  to  any  extent, 
but  in  1894  San  Francisco  held  the  fifth,  Cincinnati  the 
seventh,  and  Chicago  the  eighth  place  in  these  manufac- 
tures. Three  of  the  eight  large  watch-manufacturing  com- 
panies are  in  Illinois. 

The  conditions  that  have  favored  manufacturing  devel- 
opment in  the  United  States  are  (1)  abundance  of  raw  ma- 
terial and  fuel,  (2)  enormous  capital,  (3)  great  inventive 
talent,  which  has  devised  a  large  variety  of  labor-saving 
machinery  and  applied  scientific  discoveries  to  many  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture,  (4)  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts and  the  promptness  with  which  orders  are  filled,  and  (5) 
a  protective  system  that  has  fostered  many  industries  by 
excluding  quantities  of  foreign  commodities.  Other  fac- 
tors also,  such  as  the  reduced  cost  of  many  raw  materials, 
the  decreased  rate  of  interest  on  money,  and  low  freight 
rates  have  helped  the  United  States  manitfacturers  to 
compete  with  the  products  of  cheap  labor  in  foreign 
markets. 

Iron  and  steel  articles  are  made  most  largely  in  the  States 
that  produce  the  most  pig  iron.  .Nearly  all  the  structural 
,  shapes  of  steel  used  for  bridges,  frames  for  buildings,  etc., 
come  from  Pennsylvania.  That  state  also  produces  more 
than  one  half  of  all  the  rolled  iron  and  steel,  while  Alle- 
ghany County,  Pa.,  in  which  Pittsburg  is  situated,  makes 
more  than  one  fourth  of  all  the  product,  such  as  rails,  iron 
and  steel  plates  for  cut  nails,  spikes,  and  wire  rods.     These 


142  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

products  are  made  in  rolling  mills,  where  the  metal,  usu- 
ally heated,  is  passed  through  rollers  that  give  it  either  its 
final  shape  or  the  form  required  for  purposes  of  further 
manufacture. 

A  large  variety  of  articles,  as  stove  parts,  etc.,  are  made 
in  foundries  by  pouring  molten  cast  iron  or  steel  into 
molds.  Foundries  and  shops  for  making  machinery  are 
widely  scattered  over  the  Northern  states.  Philadelphia, 
Chicago,  and  Xew  York  city  lead  in  supplying  foundry 
products  and  machinery ;  Pittsburg,  Providence,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  Erie, 
Pa.,  are  also  conspicuous  for  these  industries. 

American  nails,  wire,  saws,  tools,  locks,  hinges,  and 
many  other  articles  are  sent  all  over  the  world.  Imports 
of  hardware,  except  cutlery,  have  nearly  ceased,  owing  to 
the  excellence  and  cheapness  of  the  domestic  products. 

Among  the  great  iron  and  steel  industries  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  locomotives.  Twelve  large  plants  in  Philadelphia, 
Patersou,  X.  J.,  Schenectady  and  Dunkirk,  X.  Y.,  Pitts- 
burg, Providence,  Eichmond,  Scranton,  Pa.,  and  Man- 
chester, X.  H.,  have  a  capacity  of  3,000  engines  a  year.  As 
the  average  life  of  a  machine  is  twenty  years,  and  the  aver- 
age annual  domestic  demand  does  not  much  exceed  1,800 
engines,  there  is  opportunity  to  fill  foreign  orders.  Amer- 
ican locomotives  are  now  sold  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
Siberia,  Sweden,  France,  and  some  other  countries.  The 
trade  is  growing  every  year,  and  in  1898  about  one  fourth 
of  these  manufactures  was  sold  abroad. 

The  value  of  machines  produced  in  the  United  States  is 
about  $400,000,000  a  year.  X'o  other  nation  has  so  far 
supplanted  hand  labor  by  machinery  as  the  United  States. 
In  the  manufacture  of  machinery  two  distinct  features, 
perfected  in  America,  are  (1)  the  production  of  inter- 
changeable parts  applied  to  a  large  number  of  products, 
such  as  sewing  machines,  bicycles,  firearms,  watches,  and 
others ;  and  (2)  automatic  machines  which  take  the  mate- 


THE   UNITED  STATES  143 

rial  aud,  without  manipulation,  turn  out  the  finished  article, 
such  as  twine,  yarn,  pins,  pens,  and  many  other  products  or 
j^arts  of  them. 

About  one  fourth,  of  the  value  of  all  the  machinery  pro- 
duced is  in  agricultural  machinery  and  implements  (p.  147). 
Seeders,  steam  and  other  plows,  self-binding  reapers,  mow- 
ers, farm  windmills,  ditchers,  and  many  other  machines  are 
manufactured  extensively  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
lake  region,  and  western  Xew  York,  where  the  farming  in- 
terests are  largest.  Agricultural  machinery  exports  have 
almost  wholly  developed  since  1865,  and  are  still  rapidly 
growing.  The  leading  countries  of  Europe,  Argentina, 
Canada,  and  British  Australasia  take  nearly  all  the  exjiorts, 
over  two  thirds  of  which  are  mowers  and  reapers,  with 
plows  and  cultivators  as  the  next  largest  items  (p.  147). 

American  sewing  machines  compete  successfully  in  all  the 
world's  markets.  About  8,000  patents  were  issued  in  the 
United  States  between  1842  and  1898  on  sewing  machines 
alone.  More  than  thirty  companies  are  engaged  in  this 
industry,  and  American  manufactories  have  even  been 
established  in  foreign  lands.  Tlie  value  of  the  exported 
product  is  between  13,000,000  and  $4,000,000  a  year. 

Shipbuilding,  after  the  civil  war,  languished,  and  the 
United  States  depended  upon  other  nations  for  its  ocean 
carriage.  But  the  cheapening  of  iron  and  steel  and  the 
excellence  of  American  steel  ship  plates,  marine  boilers  and 
engines,  all  of  which  are  bought  to  some  extent  by  foreign 
shipbuilders,  have  heljied  to  revive  the  home  industry. 
Armor  plate,  not  made  in  this  country  before  1800,  is  now 
supplied  to  many  war  ships.  The  largest  shi2)building  plants 
are  at  Philadelphia,  Sparrow's  Point,  Md.,  Richmond,  San 
Francisco,  Newport  Xews,  and  Bath,  Me.  The  first  Ameri- 
can steel  sailing  ship  was  built  at  Bath  in  1898. 

Other  large  manufactures  are  car  building,  including 
ordinary  passenger,  sleeping,  freight,  and  refrigerator  cars 
for  railroad  lines  and  cars  for  street  service. 


144  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  cooperage  industry  has  an  annual  production  worth 
about  $40,000,000.  Barrels  used  for  flour  and  sugar  are  of 
elm ;  casks  are  usually  made  of  oak.  The  fact  that  these 
articles  are  easily  handled  makes  them  very  popular  both 
in  America  and  in  Europe  for  the  transport  of  many  prod- 
ucts. The  staves  are  made  at  lumber  mills,  and  shipped 
to  cooper  shops  all  over  the  country.  Staves  and  heads 
worth  several  million  dollars  are  annually  sent  to  foreign 
countries.  ^ 

None  of  the  chief  leather-producing  countries  has  enough 
raw  material  at  home  to  supply  the  demand.  Europe  imports 
about  18,000,000  pounds  a  year  of  raAV  hides  from  South 
America,  India,  Australia,  and  other  countries  in  addition 
to  its  own  large  supplies  and  the  quantities  of  finished 
leather  it  buys  from  the  United  States.  This  country's 
imports  of  hides  have  nearly  doubled  in  five  years  (p.  147), 
as  the  millions  of  cattle  killed  in  the  United  States  supjDly 
only  a  part  of  the  hides  required  by  the  leather  trade. 
Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Brazil  are  the  largest  sources  of 
foreign  hides,  but  a  great  many  come  from  Europe  and 
Mexico.  The  method  of  tanning  by  the  use  of  chromium 
compounds,  discovered  in  1856,  and  applied  in  Philadel- 
phia, soon  made  that  city  the  largest  leather  manufactory 
in  the  world. 

The  United  States  leads  the  world  in  the  production  of 
leather  footwear.  About  two  thirds  of  the  boots  and  shoes 
made  in  this  country  come  from  the  Xew  England  states. 
Custom-made  boots  and  shoes  are  produced  all  over  the 
country,  but  most  of  the  product  is  factory  made,  and  the 
output  is  valued  at  over  |!2 60,000,000  a  year.  Xew  York, 
Eochester,  and  other  cities  in  Xew  York  state,  Philadel- 
phia, and  Chicago  are  prominent  in  this  in.dustry.  Cincin- 
nati and  St.  Louis  turn  out  great  qi;antities  of  women".- 
shoes,  but  Lynn,  Brockton,  and  Haverhill,  in  eastern  Mas- 
sachusetts, are  the  leaders,  and  Massachusetts  has  over  half 
the  factories  and  turns  out  more  than  half  the  product 


THE   UNITED  STATES  145 

(p.  148).  Machinery  has  revolutionized  the  industry.  Ma- 
chines have  replaced  the  lapstone  and  the  hammer.  They 
split  and  cut  leather  into  strips  for  sole  leather,  do  the 
sewing  and  pegging,  make  the  heels,  and  save  hand  labor 
in  other  ways.  One  man  sews  the  soles  of  600  to  600  pairs 
of  shoes  in  a  day.  American  shoe  factories  can  produce 
in  eight  or  ten  months  a  year's  supply  for  the  home  mar- 
ket. Boston  handles  nearly  all  the  New  England  goods, 
and  is  the  largest  market  in  the  country. 

Boot  and  shoe  exports  have  been  small  for  many  years, 
considering  the  enormous  production.  This  was  due  to 
the  rise  in  the  price  of  materials,  to  the  large  home  de- 
mand, and  to  the  failure  of  manufacturers  to  adapt  their 
styles  to  the  wants  of  countries  which  import  footwear. 
The  United  Kingdom  exports  far  more  boots  and  shoes 
than  the  United  States,  most  of  them  going  to  her  colo- 
nies. In  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  renewed  inter- 
est in  the  export  trade,  which  is  now  rapidly  growing 
(p.  148). 

The  production  of  ready-made  clothing  for  men  and  boys 
is  valued  at  about  $400,000,000  a  year.  The  quality  of 
ready-made  clothing  has  greatly  improved,  and  as  a  result 
much  less  than  one  third  of  the  clothing  worn  by  men  in 
the  United  States  is  custom  made.  The  manufacture  is 
Avidely  distributed  in  all  the  larger  cities,  Xew  York  being 
the  greatest  center,  followed  by  Philadelphia,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Rochester.  The  ready- 
made  clothing  factories  work  up  the  enormous  outi)ut  of 
the  domestic  cloth  mills,  while  most  of  the  imported  cloths 
are  consumed  in  the  custom  trade.  Imports  of  cotton, 
wool,  and  silk  clothing,  including  knit  goods,  are  less  than 
15,000,000  a  year. 

Canning  is  an  enormous  industry.     The  value  of  the  food 

stuffs  thus  prepared  in  the  United  States  is  about  $80,000,000 

a  year.     Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Kansas — all  large  corn  states — 

divide  corn  canning  with  Maine,  New  York,  and  Maryland. 

10 


140  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Peach  canning  is  mainly  confined  to  the  large  peach-grow- 
ing sections  of  Maryland,  Xew  York,  Delaware,  and  Michi- 
gan. Salmon  is  canned  only  on  the  Pacific  coast,  with 
Alaska  as  the  chief  source  of  supply.  Most  of  the  milk 
canneries  are  in  the  dairy  states  of  Xew  York,  Ohio,  and 
Illinois.  The  large  and  small  fruits,  with  tomatoes,  beans, 
peas,  and  i^umj^kins,  are  extensively  canned ;  also  corned 
beef,  at  the  large  slaughtering  centers,  and  sardines  and 
lobsters  on  the  Maine  coast.  The  variety  of  canned  goods 
is  constantly  increasing,  and  now  includes  soups,  minced 
meat,  brown  bread,  and  other  articles.  The  exports  of 
canned  fruit,  meats,  and  vegetables  are  large. 

The  production  of  glass  in  the  United  States  is  about 
$50,000,000  a  year  (p.  148).  Xearly  every  part  of  the 
country  has  sand  adapted  for  glassmaking,  and  the  in- 
dustry is  carried  on  in  about  twenty-five  states,  but  Penn- 
sylvania produces  two  fifths  of  the  entire  output,  and 
Indiana,  Xew  York,  Illinois,  Maryland,  Missouri,  and  West 
Virginia  are  the  next  largest  producers. 

Connecticut  is  the  great  clockmaking  state.  There  are 
large  factories  in  Xew  Haven,  "Waterbury,  Thomaston,  An- 
sonia,  Bristol,  Winsted,  and  Forestville,  in  that  state,  and 
also  in  Xew  York  city  and  Boston.  There  are  perhaps  not 
more  than  thirty  clock  companies  in  the  country,  but  they 
supply  the  demand  and  export  about  $1,000,000  worth  a 
year.  The  imports,  confined  chiefly  to  French  clocks,  are 
about  one  third  the  exjDorts. 

In  the  enumeration  of  the  manufactures  in  this  and 
previous  chapters  it  has  not  been  possible  even  to  mention 
many  important  industries.  The  aim  has  been  to  include 
a  suflEiciently  large  number  to  give  an  idea  of  the  enor- 
mous development  and  variety  of  industrial  activities  in 
the  United  States. 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


147 


Growth  of  Maxufacturing  ix  the  United  States 


(IX  Million  Dollars) 

Year. 

Capital. 

Wages. 

Raw  material. 

1850.... 

533 

237 

555 

1880. . . . 

.  .     2.780 

948 

3.397 

1890. . . . 

. .     6,524 

2,383 

5,159 

Gross 

Net 

product. 

product.* 

1,019 

464 

5,370 

1,973 

9,370 

4,211 

Nu.MBER  OF  Persons  employed  in  Manufacturixg  (in  Thousands) 

1880. 
2,739 


1850, 
957 


I860. 
1,311 


1870. 
2,055 


1890. 
4,712 


Chief  Manufactures 

Lumber 587 

Meat  industries  . .  562 

Flour 514 

Clothing 485 

Iron  and  steel.  . .  .  431 

3Iachine  shops  . .  412 

Carpentering  ....  281 

Printing 275 

Cottons 268 

Boots  and  shoes. .  260 

Tobacco 210 


IX  1890  (Gross  Produc 

Cars 204 

Masonry 191 

Malt  liquors 183 

Leather 180 

Woolens 134 

Bakeries 128 

Sugar  refining. .  .  123 

Wagons,  etc 115 

Furniture 112 

Distilled  liquors  .  104 


t  IX  Million  Dollars) 

Silk 87 

Kerosene 85 

Farm  implements  .  81 
Worsted  goods....   79 

Paper 74 

Hosiery,  knit  goods  67 
Dairy  products. ...  61 

Chemicals 59 

Blacksraithing,  etc.  54 
Carpets 49 


Exports  of  Agricultural  Implements  in  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 

To  Ger-      United        Other       Argen-         British  British  All 

France,    many.  Kingdom.    Europe.       tina.      N.  America.  Australasia,  countries. 

18        1.7        1.4  3.7  2.0  1.8  0.9  13.6 


Imports  of  Raw  Hides  and  Skins  (in  ^Million  Dollars) 

1895.  1898.  1899. 

26  40  51 


Exports  of  Sole  Leather  in  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 
United  Kingdom.    Germany.    Other  Europe.    Japan.    ^l\\^^,^e';''."'  All  countries. 


5.4 


0.3 


0.7 


0.3 


0.3 


6.8 


*  The  net  product  is  the  value  less  the  cost  of  raw  material, 


U6 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Product  of  Leading  Boot  and  Shoe  Centers  ix  1890 


Lynn 25.8 

Brockton 16.0 

Haverhill 14.9 

Chicago 7.0 


(in  Million  Dollars) 

Philadelphia  ....  6.8 

Rochester 6.4 

Marlboro,  Mass..  5.3 

New  York 5.3 


Cincinnati 5.0 

St.  Louis 4.0 

Worcester,  Mass. .  ;^.5 

San  Francisco  ...  3.3 


Boston  Boot  and  Shoe  Shipments  to  the  West  and  South 
(in  Million  Dollars) 


1870. 
1.2 


1890. 
3.5 


1892. 

3.7 


1865. 
2.0 


Exports  of  Boots  and  Shoes  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1898. 
1.9 


1876. 
0.4 


1890. 
0.7 


1894. 
0.8 


1899. 
3.7 


Glass  Product  in  1900  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Flint. 
30 


AVindow. 
10 


Green  and  black. 


Plate. 

7 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE    UNITED    STATES    iContinued) 

Freight  Rates — Rivers — Riyer  Ports— The  Great 
Lakes — The  "  Soo  "  Canal — Lake  Ports — Canals — 
Railroads — Coasting  Trade — Xearby  Foreign  Sea 
Trade — Deep-Sea  Trade — Seaports 

Freight  rates  in  the  United  States  have  declined  continu- 
ously for  thirty  years.  One  reason  why  the  United  States 
can  send  agricultural  and  meat  products  1,200  miles  to  the 
seacoast  and  sell  them  to  food-buying  nations  in  competi- 
tion with  countries  like  Russia,  Argentina,  and  the  Austra- 
lian colonies,  whose  export  supplies  are  raised  not  far  from 
the  sea,  is  that  its  inland  transportation  is  enormously  de- 
veloped and  freight  charges  are  the  lowest  in  the  world, 
except  some  long  distance  ocean  freights.  The  average 
rates  per  ton  mile  (the  price  per  ton  for  a  mile  of  carriage) 
on  the  trunk  railroads  have  declined  from  about  two  cents 
to  six  mills,  and  on  two  of  them  to  3.6  mills.  The  average 
rates  on  the  Kew  York  canals  have  declined  from  6.5  mills 
per  ton  mile  to  1.9  mills  ;  the  present  average  canal  rates 
are  one  third  that  of  most  railroads.  The  average  cost 
•  on  the  Great  Lakes  is  about  six  tenths  mill  per  ton  mile. 
The  cost  on  the  largest  ocean  freighters  averages  about 
a  half  mill  per  ton  mile. 

The  United  States  carefully  fosters  its  rivers  (Fig.  73). 
Both  Federal  and  state  Governments  assiduously  en- 
deavor to  increase  their  efficiency  for  commerce.  The 
River  and  Harbor  bill  is  introduced  in  Congress  every  year 

149 


THE  UNITED  STATES  151 

to  provide  funds   for  the  improvement  of  navigation,  and 
the  expenditure  is  very  large. 

The  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  supply  about  two 
thirds  of  the  river  navigation,  or  more  than  9,000  miles. 
On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Columbia  is  navigable  for  500 
miles,  the  Willamette  for  125  miles,  the  Sacramento  for 
150  miles,  and  its  branch,  the  San  Joaquin,  for  100  miles. 
The  Hudson,  which  floats  large  ocean  shijjs  100  miles  from 
its  mouth,  has  a  freight  tonnage  of  over  18,000,000  tons  a 
year.  The  Delaware  carries  over  13,000,000  tons  a  year, 
mainly  ocean  freight.  The  Ohio  and  its  tributaries  carry 
over  15,000,000  tons  a  year,  mainly  coal,  grain,  lumber,  and 
the  iron  and  steel  and  other  products  of  the  mills  and  pot- 
teries on  their  banks.  About  the  same  amount  of  freight 
is  carried  on  the  Mississippi.  In  1890  11,000,000  passen- 
gers were  carried  on  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system, 
and  on  many  rivers,  notably  the  Hudson,  the  passenger 
traffic  is  a  large  element  in  the  total  transportation.* 

*  St.  Louis,  the  largest  river  port  in  the  country,  is  the  commercial 
center  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  commands  more  of  the  Mexican 
trade  than  any  other  city.  Cincinnati  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Ohio 
Valley.  Pig  iron,  steel,  coal,  and  lumber  are  transported  by  river  at 
very  cheap  rates  to  its  many  factories.  The  situation  of  Pittsburg  at 
the  junction  of  the  two  rivers  which  foi-m  the  Ohio,  together  with  the 
development  of  coal,  iron,  and  natural  gas  industries,  gave  the  city  its 
manufacturing  and  commercial  importance.  Louisville,  on  the  Ohio, 
with  fine  facilities  for  receiving  raw  materials,  has  large  iron  pipe, 
wagon,  flour,  leather,  tobacco,  and  other  industries.  The  proximity  of 
Kansas  City  to  large  stock-  and  grain-raising  regions  has  made  it, 
next  to  Chicago,  the  greatest  live  stock  market  in  the  world.  Shuigli- 
tering  and  meat  packing  are  its  main  industries,  and  its  Southern  trade 
is  very  important.  St.  Paul  became  a  city  because  it  is  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  large  railroad,  jobbing,  and 
manufacturing  center.  The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  made  ]\Iinneapolis 
known  as  a  flour-  and  lumber-making  town  before  it  contained  500 
houses.  Its  flour,  wood-working,  and  machinery  industries  have  had 
phenomenal  development.  Memphis,  at  tlie  hcail  of  navigation  for  the 
larger  vessels  on  tlio  Mississippi,  is  the  chief  commeniul  point  between 


152 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Great  Lakes  are  the  most  important  feature  of  internal 
navigation.  They  provide,  with  the  "  Soo  "  and  Canadian 
canals  at  the  rapids  in  the  St.  Mary's  Eiver,  the  St.  Clair 
and  Detroit  Rivers,  and  the  AVelland  Canal,  an  unbroken 
stretch  of  navigation  from  Duluth  to  the  foot  of  Lake 
Ontario,  over  1,000  miles.  The  freight  movement  on  the 
lakes  is  the  largest  feature  of  internal  water  transporta- 
tion, because  the  heads  of  the  lake  system  (Lakes  Superior 
and  Michigan)  are  near  the  largest  sources  of  iron  ore, 
copper,  including  that  from  Montana,  wheat,  flour,  and 
lumber.  For  these  reasons  the  ton  mileage  on  the  lakes  is 
equal  to  nearly  forty  per  cent  of  that  of  all  the  railroads  in 
the  country.  Some  of  the  largest  lake  vessels  carry  250,- 
000  bushels  of  wheat  at  a  load.     More  than  five  times  as 

many  vessels  pass  through 
the  Soo  and  Canadian  ca- 
nals (Fig.  73)  every  year 
as  through  the  Suez  Canal. 
Superior  and  Duluth 
are  the  main  points  of  con- 
centration and  distribution 
of  the  Lake  Superior  traf- 
fic. Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
Detroit,  Toledo,  Cleveland, 
and  Buffalo  are  the  main 
points  of  concentration  and 
distribution  on  the  other 
lakes.  Superior  has  large  coal  dorks  and  ship  yards  and 
many  manufacturing  interests,  mainly  flour  and  lumber. 
It  is  near  Duluth,  whose  business  interests  are  similar, 
and  both  cities  ship  large  quantities  of  wheat,  flour, 
sheep,  wool,  hides,  copper   and  iron  ores.     They  are  the 


Fig.  73. — The  Soo  and  Canadian  canals. 

The  Soo  Canal  carries  nine  tenths  of  the 
freight  and  most  of  the  passenger  busi- 
ness ;  its  freight  tonnage  in  1899  (over 
25,000,000  tons)  was  more  than  three 
times  that  of  1889. 


St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans.  Vicksburg  is  a  large  cotton  market  and 
manufactures  much  cotton-seed  oil.  Omaha  is  the  commercial  dis- 
tributing point  for  a  wide  area  and  the  third  largest  packing  center. 


THE   LTXITED   STATES  I53 

gateways  through  whirli  many  of  the  products  of  Mon- 
tana, the  Dakotas,  Minnesota,  and  northern  Wisconsin 
reach  the  consuming  and  manufacturing  centers.  Chicago 
has  water  communications  through  the  lakes,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  with  the  Atlantic,  by 
canal  and  the  Illinois  River  with  the  Mississippi  system, 
and  is  joined  by  rail  to  all  important  points  on  the  sea- 
board and  all  the  large  commercial  centers  of  the  interior. 
These  advantages  have  made  it  the  second  city  in  popula- 
tion in  the  country,  the  largest  distributor  of  grain  and 
meat  products,  the  largest  slaughtering  and  meat-packing 
center  in  the  world,  the  first  of  lumber  markets,  and  a  pro- 
ducer of  great  quantities  of  clothing,  furniture,  leather 
goods,  steel  rails,  and  many  other  articles.  After  Chicago, 
Duluth,  and  Superior,  Milwaukee  is  the  largest  shipper  of 
grain,  one  of  the  largest  producers  of  malt  liquors,  and  has 
important  pork-packing,  flour,  railroad  car,  leather,  iron 
and  steel,  and  other  manufacturing  interests.  It  sells  a 
great  deal  of  the  fine  cream-colored  brick  known  as  Milwau- 
kee brick,  made  of  clay  that  abounds  in  some  parts  of  Wis- 
consin. Detroit  is  a  center  of  lake  trade  and  of  commerce 
with  Canada.  Its  tobacco,  iron,  copper-smelting,  and  other 
industries  are  very  important.  Cleveland  is  the  chief  lake 
port  of  Ohio.  It  builds  many  iron  and  steel  vessels,  and  has 
extensive  induitrial  development.  Buffalo,  the  western  ter- 
minus of  the  Erie  Canal,  is  the  grea^  eastern  terminus  of  the 
lake  trade,  except  that  which  passes  through  the  W^elland 
Canal.  It  is  naturally,  therefore,  a  focal  point  for  railroads 
competing  with  lake  vessels  and  canal  boats  for  lieavy 
freight  and  especially  for  the  grain  and  lumber  trade.  Rail- 
roads from  all  the  large  northeast  seaports  and  from  the 
large  markets  of  the  west  converge  at  Buffalo.  It  has  large 
manufactures  and  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing  cities 
in  tlie  country. 

The  usefulness  of  canals  has  largely  declined  with  the 
growth  of  railroads.     Tlie  Erie  Canal,  opened  in,  1S;.*5,  was 


ir.-i 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


lojig  the  most  important  means  of  communication  between 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  developing  regions  around 
the  Great  Lakes.  It  gave  Xew  York  city  its  supremacy  as 
a  seaport  and  as  a  distributing  point  for  the  interior. 
The  most  important  articles  of  freight  are  grain,  lumber, 
coal,  ores,  iron,  and  salt,  general  merchandise  being  only  a 
small  item.  The  canal  now  carries  only  a  small  part  of  the 
grain  that  reaches  New  York,  for  heavy  steel  rails  and 
powerful  locomotives  enable  one  engine  to  haul  large  cars 
carrying  40,000  to  50,000  bushels  in  one  train. 

About  1,300,000  freight  cars  and  26,000  passenger  cars  are 
running  on  the  railroads  of  the  United  States.  Their  net 
earnings  a  year  are  between  $350,000,000  and  $390,000,000. 
The  railroad  mileage  (p.  44)  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
whole  of  Europe  and  more  than  a  third  of  the  mileage  of 
the  world  (Figs.   74  and  75).     For  many  years  railroads 


f 

50                   100                  150 

1     ,     ,     ,     1     ,     ,     ,     .     1     ,     1     ,     ,     1     .     1 

200 

1    1    1    1    1 

250                300                350                400 

,    ,    1    ,    1    ■    1    1    >    ,    1    ,    1    ,    1    1    .    1    , 

B^  EARTH'S  CIRCUMFERENCE 

■  ^^  ■■  1 

■■  mm  DISTANCE  OF  THE  MOON  FROM  THE  E 

1840 

■ 

1850 
1860 
1870 
1880 

1890 
1893 

Fig.  74. — Growth  of  the  world's  railroads,  in  thousand  miles. 
0  50  iOO  li 


1830 
1860 
1870 
1890 
1896 


J I L 


J \ L 


Fig.  7^.— Growth  of  railroads  in  the  United  States,  in  thousand  miles. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  155 

(Fig.  76)  were  constantly  extending  into  virgin  regions 
westward,  and  were  the  most  potent  influence  in  promoting 
rapid  settlement  and  development.  The  Federal  Govern- 
ment gave  large  grants  of  land  to  compaiiies  building  roads 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean  across  hundreds  of  miles  of  sparsely 
settled  territory.  These  lines,  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific,  the  South- 
ern Pacific,  with  their  eastern  connections,  form  continu- 
ous and  roughly  parallel  highways  from  the  Atlantic  to  tlie 
Pacific.  All  important  ports  on  either  ocean  have  com- 
paratively direct  rail  connections  with  the  other  ocean,  and 
all  the  great  inland  commercial  centers,  as  Chicago,  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  others,  have  not  only  lines  form- 
ing the  direct  routes  between  them  and  both  oceans,  but 
also  connections  that  give  them  rail  communication  with 
practically  all  the  ports  of  the  country. 

The  east  and  west  lines  have  been  most  important,  be- 
cause they  lead  to  the  seaports  having  the  largest  coastwise 
and  foreign  sea  trade,  also  because  they  pass  through  the 
chief  manufacturing  centers  where  the  population  is  most 
dense  and  the  demand  for  food  supplies  and  raw  materials 
for  the  factories  is  greatest.  But  the  recent  large  develop- 
ment of  southern  manufacturing  and  of  the  ocean  trade  of 
southern  ports  is  constantly  increasing  the  importance  of  the 
north  and  south  lines.  Such  routes  as  the  coast  line  from 
New  York  to  Jacksonville,  jSTew  York  through  Atlanta  to 
New  Orleans,  Cleveland  through  Louisville  to  New  Orleans, 
Chicago  through  Cairo  to  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis  to  (Jalves- 
ton,  and  others  are  great  factors  in  the  country's  business. 
The  development  of  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Mobile,  and 
other  southern  ports  tends  to  reduce  export  freight  rates.  Li 
1899  the  rate  of  export  grain  from  the  Missouri  River  was 
the  lowest  ever  known,  and  was  due  to  tlie  competition  of  the 
roads  leading  to  the  G  ulf  with  those  leading  to  eastern  ports. 

A  great  many  freight  and  passenger  cars  are  transferred 
at  junction  points  from  one  line  to  another,  so  that  passen- 


THE   UNITED   STATES  157 

gers  and  freight  pass  over  the  lines  of  different  companies 
with  the  same  facilities  as  though  the  roads  belonged  to 
one  company.  At  Buffalo,  Boston,  Atlanta,  Louisville,  and 
some  other  junction  points,  railroad  clearing  houses  are 
maintained  for  the  settlement  of  accounts  between  the  rail- 
roads ;  by  balancing  debits  and  credits  a  great  many  trans- 
actions are  settled  without  exchanging  cash. 

The  coasting  trade  of  the  United  States  is  the  largest  in 
the  world.  It  is  about  twice  as  large  as  the  coasting  trade 
of  Great  Britain.  It  includes  seagoing  steamships  plying 
from  Xew  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore  to 
Richmond,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Jacksonville,  Xew  Or- 
leans, Galveston,  and  other  ports,  the  large  passenger 
steamers  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  many  sailing  vessels 
and  fishing  craft.  Many  steam  and  sailing  vessels  are 
engaged  in  the  Pacific  coast  trade  between  San  Francisco, 
Portland,  Ore.,  and  Puget  Sound  ports.  The  vessel  ton- 
nage engaged  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  is  more  than 
2,600,000  tons,  about  five  times  as  much  as  that  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  twice  as  much  as  that  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
ten  times  as  much  as  that  of  the  rivers,  exclusive,  however, 
of  river  barges.  As  the  coasting  trade  is  strictly  reserved 
by  law  to  vessels  under  the  American  flag,  the  only  compe- 
tition to  which  the  United  States  shipping  engaged  in  it  is 
subjected  is  that  of  the  railroads. 

An  important  part  of  the  foreign  ocean  trade  of  the 
L^nited  States  is  with  British  North  America,  the  West 
Indies,  and  Latin  American  ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Half  of  this  trade  is  carried  in 
American  vessels,  and  steamers  often  make  from  thirty  to 
fifty  trips  a  year. 

The  deep-sea  trade  embraces  more  than  four  fifths  of  all 
the  foreign  exports  and  imports  by  sea.  As  nearly  all  voy- 
ages in  this  trade  exceed  :i,000  miles,  one  vessel  can  make 
only  a  small  number  of  trips  a  year.  The  best  record 
between  America  and  Europe  is  held  by  the  steamer  St. 


158  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Louis,  which  has  cleared  from  New  York  to  Southampton 
fifteen  times  in  one  year.  In  1899  only  8  j)er  cent,  of  the 
vast  volume  of  the  United  States  deep-sea  commerce  was 
carried  in  American  shij^s. 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  United  States  is  a  large 
ocean-carrying  merchant  marine.  In  the  fiscal  year  1898-"99 
the  country  paid  to  foreign  companies  $169,000,000  for 
freightage,  $28,000,000  for  passenger  fares,  and  $17,000,000 
for  marine  insurance.  Because  the  country  in  that  year 
sold  over  $600,000,000  more  goods  to  foreign  lands  than  it 
bought  from  them,  some  writers  called  this  sum  the  balance 
of  trade  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  The  correct  bal- 
ance, however,  was  to  be  found  only  by  deducting  from  the 
excess  of  exports  $214,000,000  paid  for  foreign  transporta- 
tion and  insurance. 

A  small  class  of  fast  steamships,  driven  by  very  power- 
ful engines,  sacrifice  freight  room  to  passenger  accommo- 
dations, though  much  freight  is  carried.  Most  of  the 
passenger  and  freight  boats  are  smaller  and  slower.  Some 
of  the  regular  lines  have  recently  introduced  very  large 
freighters  with  proportionately  small  or  no  passenger  accom- 
modations. They  sail  from  Xew  York  to  Bremen,  Ham- 
burg, Southampton,  Liverpool,  and  London,  and  are  driving 
tramp  steamers  off  the  regular  routes.  Tramp  steamers 
which  take  cargoes  where  they  can  get  them,  entering  ports 
mainly  south  of  Xew  York,  are  becoming  more  and  more  con- 
fined to  ports  that  regular  lines  do  not  reach.  Sailing  ves- 
sels have  a  small  part  in  the  trade.  Clipper  ships,  famous 
for  quick  runs,  still  ply  on  the  Cape  Horn  route  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  to  some  extent  between  Pacific  ports  and  Europe. 

Xew  York,  the  second  largest  city  in  the  world,  is  the 
port  of  most  of  the  regular  steamship  lines  between  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  It  is  the  outlet  for  over  one  third 
of  all  the  domestic  exports,  and  receives  a  larger  proportion 
of  imports.  Breadstuffs,  provisions,  cotton,  and  petroleum 
form  about  one  half  of  its  exports.     Most  of  the  coffee,  dry 


THE   UNITED   STATES  I59 

goods,  crude  rubber,  precious  stones,  furs,  wine,  and  tin 
plate,  about  half  of  the  sugar,  raw  silk,  leather,  and  leather 
goods,  and  a  third  of  the  wool  bought  in  foreign  lands  are 
imported  through  Xew  York.  As  the  city  has  353  miles  of 
water  front,  half  of  which  may  be  improved  for  the  use  of 
shipping,  and  as  the  piers  of  Jersey  City  and  Hoboken,  in 
Xew  Jersey,  are  practically  a  part  of  the  port  of  Xew  York, 
its  90  miles  of  pier  line,  already  surpassing  all  other  ports, 
may  be  largely  extended.  The  foreign  movement  of  the 
port,  or  the  capacity  of  vessels  in  the  foreign  trade  entering 
or  leaving  it,  is  about  15,000,000  tons  a  year,  or  more  than 
three  times  the  tonnage  of  Boston,  its  nearest  competitor. 
About  fifty  steamers  in  the  foreign  trade  leave  the  port 
every  week,  half  of  which  sail  under  the  British  and  one 
eighth  under  the  American  flags,  the  remainder  being 
mostly  German,  French,  Scandinavian,  Belgian,  Dutch,  and 
Italian  vessels. 

Xew  Y'ork  is  the  financial  center  of  the  country,  and 
the  enormous  extent  of  its  business  interests  may  be  largely 
gauged  by  the  exchange  of  bank  checks  through  the  clear- 
ing house,  which  in  1898  amounted  to  an  average  of  nearly 
^140,000,000  on  every  business  day.  United  States  seaports 
usually  develop  industries  in  proportion  to  their  population, 
and  Xew  York  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  center  of  the 
country. 

Boston,  with  4,000,000  tons  foreign  movement,  is  the 
second  of  the  four  great  world  ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
surpassing  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  in  the  extent  of  its 
commerce.  It  has  regular  connections  with  Liverpool, 
London,  Hull,  Glasgow,  and  some  other  European  points, 
does  a  large  coasting  trade  with  Canada  and  the  Southern 
states,  and  is  a  large  cotton  and  leather  and  the  largest 
wool  market.  It  does  much  export  and  import  trade  for 
X"ew  England,  and  exports  many  western  food  products. 

Philadelphia,  with  over  3,000,000  tons  foreign  move- 
ment, has  regular  lines  of   steamships   to  Liverpool   and 


IQQ  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Antwerp,  the  West  Indies,  and  also  in  the  coasting  trade. 
The  Delaware  is  deep  enough  to  carry  vessels  to  the  port  at 
low  tide.  A  great  deal  of  raw  sngar  is  brought  from  the 
AVest  Indies  for  the  refineries,  wool  for  the  carpet  factories, 
and  iron  ore  for  Pennsylvania  works. 

Baltimore,  with  over  3,000,000  tons  foreign  movement, 
140  nautical  miles  from  the  sea,  is  nearer  the  Mississippi 
Valley  than  is  New  York,  is  in  close  touch  with  it  by 
rail,  and  attracts  most  of  the  commerce  of  Chesapeake  Bay 
on  account  of  its  superior  position,  both  with  reference  to 
navigation  and  the  products  of  the  bay.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  largest  source  of  oysters  in  the  world,  and  one  of  the 
leading  fruit  regions  of  the  couni>ry.  It  is  the  second  port 
in  the  export  of  maize,  flour,  and  tobacco,  and  is  surpassed 
only  by  Xew  York  and  Boston  in  the  exjjorts  of  wheat.  It 
is  the  most  southern  port  shipping  live  cattle. 

Xew  Orleans,  with  over  2,800,000  tons  foreign  movement, 
107  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  receives 
four  fifths  of  the  products  which  enter  the  city  by  rail, 
river,  and  canal  from  the  interior ;  one  tenth  are  brought 
by  coasting  vessels  and  one  tenth  by  foreign  vessels.  Xew 
Orleans  is  the  first  cotton- shipping  port  in  the  world. 
About  one  half  the  export  cotton  goes  to  England,  one  fifth 
to  France,  one  seventh  to  Germany,  and  Eussia,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  Belgium  are  also  purchasers.  Cotton-seed  oil,  grain, 
flour,  and  tobacco  are  also  important  exports. 

The  larger  part  of  the  exports  of  San  Francisco,  with 
over  2,000,000  tons  foreign  movement,  are  sent  to  Europe, 
and  the  larger  part  of  the  imports  are  derived  from  Asia 
and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  tonnage  entering  the  port 
is  about  equally  distributed  between  the  foreign  and  the 
coast  trades.  Wheat,  lumber,  flour,  canned  salmon,  cotton 
goods,  preserved  fruits,  machinery,  etc.,  are  the  chief  ex- 
ports. It  is  a  latge  sugar  market,  for  it  receives  nearly  all 
the  raw  sugar  of  Hawaii,  and  its  convenient  situation  in 
respect  to  the  Asian  markets  makes  it  the  largest  importer 


THE   UNITED  STATES  K;! 

of  teas  and  raw  silk  except  Xew  York.  Rice,  tobacco,  and 
opium  are  also  large  imports  from  Asia,  coffee  from  Central 
America,  and  coal  is  brought  from  Australia,  Washington, 
and  British  Columbia.  San  Francisco  is  one  of  the  few 
ports  in  which  the  trans-ocean  traffic  by  sailing  vessels  is 
proportionately  quite  large.  This  trade  is  mainly  with 
England.  Eegular  steamship  lines  connect  the  port  with 
Panama  and  Mexican  ports,  Honolulu,  Yokohama,  Hong- 
Kong,  Auckland,  and  Sydney ;  and  coasting  vessels  supple- 
ment the  railroads  in  the  trade  between  other  Pacific  ports 
of  the  country  and  San  Francisco,  which  is  the  central  dis- 
tributing point  for  the  Pacific  coast  states. 

Percentages  of  Exports  from  United  States  Ports 
Year.    New  York.    Boston.    Philadelphia.    Baltimore.    New  Orleans.    Galveston. 


1868. . 

46.0 

4.46 

3.07 

3.62 

15.22 

1.53 

1888.. 

44.6 

8.11 

4.14 

6.62 

11.66 

2.26 

1899.. 

37.4 

10.43 

5.05 

8.90 

6.39 

7.17 

11 


CHAPTEE   XVI 

THE    UNITED    STATES    {Continued) 

General  Facts  of  Commerce — The  Trade 
OP  THIS  Country 

The  value  of  trade  between  all  countries  of  the  world  in- 
creased three  fourths  in  thirty  years  (1867-97).  There  are 
many  reasons  why  commerce  is  rajjidly  growing  in  Yolume 
(p.  166).  One  is  that  the  world's  population,  now  esti- 
mated at  1,500,000,000,  is  constantly  increasing.  The  whole 
population  of  Europe  at  the  time  of  Augustus  Caesar  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  only  50,000,000,  about  half  the  present 
population  of  European  Eussia.  With  constantly  growing 
numbers  the  standard  of  living  and  comfort  among  civilized 
peoples  has  greatly  advanced,  and  their  needs  have  multi- 
plied. It  is  much  easier  and  cheaper  now  to  procure  com- 
modities, by  reason  of  the  great  development  of  transport 
facilities  and  the  consequent  reduction  in  freight  rates. 
Machinery  has  enlarged  the  capacity  for  production,  re- 
duced its  cost,  and  thus  cheapened  commodities  so  that 
many  articles  which  were  once  luxuries  enjoyed  only  by 
the  few  are  noAV  found  in  nearly  every  home.  In  years  of 
financial  distress  or  large  crop  failure  the  value  of  the 
world's  exchange  of  commodities  is  reduced  for  a  while, 
but  the  growth  of  business  is  not  long  retarded. 

The  domestic  or  internal  trade  of  any  country  is  larger 

than  its  foreign  trade.     If  our  neighbor  the  grocer  gives  us 

just  as  good  advantages  as  his  rival  in  business  a  mile  away 

he  will  probably  secure  our  trade.     This  is  the  case  also  in 

162 


THE   UNITED  STATES  163 

the  larger  affairs  of  commei'ce.  The  United  States  pro- 
duces most  of  the  commodities  of  all  kinds  that  it  needs ; 
and  because  the  home  products  are  good  and  cheap,  and 
the  markets  are  at  our  doors,  we  need  to  send  thousands  of 
miles  for  com2)aratively  few  of  the  things  we  buy.  Our 
own  commodities  carried  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 
another  for  sale  at  home  are  worth  about  $28,000,000,000  a 
year,  which  is  thirteen  times  the  value  of  our  entire  foreign 
trade.  The  citizens  of  this  country  buy  $-iO  worth  of  home 
products  for  every  dollar  they  expend  for  foreign  commod- 
ities. The  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States,  therefore,  is 
of  small  importance  in  comparison  with  its  home  commerce. 

The  same  rule  applies  in  all  other  great  trading  nations. 
The  value  of  the  internal  trade  of  the  United  States  in  pro- 
portion to  population  is  greater,  however,  than  that  of  any 
other  country,  because  Americans  spend  more  for  food, 
clothing,  rent,  and  many  comforts  of  life  than  any  other 
people.  The  wealth  of  the  United  States,  estimated  at 
$82,000,000,000,  is  equal  to  the  combined  wealth  of  Eussia, 
Italy,  and  Spain,  is  double  that  of  Germany,  nearly  double 
that  of  France,  and  a  fourth  larger  than  that  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  Thus  the  purchasing  power  of  the  people  is  in 
striking  contrast,  for  example,  with  that  of  the  inhabitants 
of  British  India,  the  masses  of  whose  population  are  very 
poor. 

Europe  is  the  center  of  the  largest  volume  of  ingoing  and 
outgoing  commerce.  It  commands  about  three  fourths  of 
the  world's  trade  (p.  100).  An  important  feature  of 
Europe's  trade  is  that  its  imports  are  invariably  greater 
than  its  exports.  In  this  respect  it  differs  from  the  other 
continents,  excepting  Africa.  The  reason  is  that  Europe 
needs  to  import  such  enormous  quantities  of  food  for  its 
dense  population,  and  of  raw  materials  for  its  vast  indus- 
tries, and  so  much  of  its  products  are  consumed  at  home 
that  the  value  of  its  sales  to  foreign  lands  is  less  than  that 
of  its  purchases  from  them.    Trade  flows  from  places  where 


164  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

there  is  an  abundant  supjily  of  any  commodity  to  those 
wliere  there  is  scarcity  and  a  demand ;  thus  wheat,  meat, 
and  cotton  are  constantly  moving  across  the  Atlantic,  from 
America  to  Europe,  and  many  other  supplies  pour  into 
European  ports  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

On  the  other  hand,  America,  with  the  United  States  as 
its  chief  factor,  and  Asia  have  long  sold  to  other  continents 
a  larger  volume  of  commodities  than  they  have  purchased 
from  them  ;  Australia  is  beginning  to  do  so,  but  Africa  im- 
ports more  than  it  exports,  largely  because  the  foreign  com- 
modities required  by  the  pioneers  who  are  developing  that 
continent  still  have  an  excessive  value  in  proportion  to 
African  exjjorts. 

Europe  is  the  center  of  the  largest  volume  of  outgoing 
commerce,  because  its  manufactures  have  had  centuries  of 
development,  and  a  demand  has  been  created  for  them  in 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

It  is  important  to  create  foreign  markets  for  manufactured 
goods.  Those  nations  tlirive  best  in  trade  whose  foreign 
commerce  includes  a  large  proportion  of  manufactures. 
The  percentage  of  profit  on  manufactures  is  much  larger 
than  on  food  stuffs  and  the  raw  materials  of  which  goods 
are  made.  Raw  materials  are  more  readily  marketed,  and 
it  costs  more  time  and  money  to  develop  trade  in  manufac- 
tured commodities ;  but  when  this  trade  is  once  built  up,  it 
is  not  only  more  profitable  than  the  trade  in  raw  materials, 
but  is  less  vulnerable  to  competition  and  other  influences. 
Thus  the  export  trade  in  farm  products  thrives  or  languishes 
according  to  the  climatic  conditions  both  in  selling  and 
buying  countries.  If  the  sun  and  rain  help  the  American 
farmer  to  gather  unusually  large  crops  in  any  season,  the 
sale  of  farm  products  to  food-buying  countries  may  be  much 
larger  than  usual,  provided  the  farmers  of  those  countries 
have  had  a  poor  crop  year.  These  conditions  existed  in 
1898,  when  the  United  States  exports  of  breadstuffs  were 
one  fourth  larger  than  in  1897, 


THE   UNITED   STATES  165 

If  a  country  has  an  agricultural  product  which  is  rea- 
sonably constant  in  cjuantity,  and  of  which  it  possesses  a 
practical  monopoly,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  large  fluctua- 
tions in  the  sales  at  home  or  abroad.  This  is  the  case  with 
cotton  in  the  United  States  and  Havana  tobacco  in  Cuba. 

Nearly  a  third  of  the  exports  from  the  United  States  are 
manufactures  (1900).  Ten  years  ago  four  fifths  of  the  ex- 
ports were  agricultural  products ;  but  machinery  and  im- 
proved manufacturing  processes  enabled  this  country,  in 
the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  compete  with 
the  older  industrial  nations  of  Europe  in  the  sale  of  manu- 
factures. Though  this  country  still  pays  high  wages  to  la- 
bor, many  of  its  manufactures  are  sold  as  cheap  or  cheaper 
than  European  products,  because  machinery  and  skill  in 
using  it  have  increased  the  productive  capacity  of  American 
workmen.  Taking  the  producing  capacity  of  the  average 
British  workman  at  1,  that  of  the  Swiss  or  German  work- 
man is  estimated  at  1|,  and  of  the  American  workman  at 
2^.  Superior  producing  power  is  thus  a  vital  factor  in 
making  this  country  a  great  trading  nation.  The  largest 
markets  for  American  manufactures  are  in  the  leading  in- 
dustrial countries,  showing  that  many  American  products 
compete  with  European  wares  in  their  own  home  markets. 

The  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  is  over  $2,000,000,- 
000  a  year.  Commodities  worth  about  8G40,00U  come  into 
or  pass  out  of  the  country  on  every  work  day  of  the  year. 
Two  thirds  of  these  commodities  are  exported  from  the 
country,  for  it  sells  to  foreigners  a  great  deal  more  than  it 
buys  from  them  (p.  1G7).  Xearly  one  half  of  the  imports 
are  raw  materials  for  our  mills  and  factories,  or  materials 
that  are  partly  prepared  for  manufacturing.  A  large  part 
of  the  imports  also  are  such  food  stulTs  as  sugar,  coffee,  and 
tea,  which  we  produce  only  in  limited  quantities  if  at  all. 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  imports,  therefore,  consist  of  lux- 
uries and  general  merchandise,  and  Europe  su])plies  most 
of  them.     The  growth  of  the  country  as  a  manufacturing 


10() 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


nation  is  further  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  imports  from 
countries  which  supply  chiefly  manufactures  are  decreasing, 
while  they  are  increasing  from  countries  such  as  Japan, 
Argentina,  and  Brazil  that  furnish  raw  materials. 

World's  Commerce  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Year. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Totals. 

1880      

8.565 
8.220 
9.500 
9.545 
10.284 

7.390 
7.203 
8.156 
8.342 
8.900 

15 . 955 

1885 

15.423 

1890 

17.656 

1895      

17.887 

1897 

19.184 

World's  Commerce  by  Continents  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Europe 


America. 


1882. 

(Imports 6.426 

'/E.xports 5.067 

(Imports 1,400 

'/Exports 1,529 

Asia (Imports 603 

( Exports 771 

Australia ^^""P^'^' ^28 

}  Exports 264 

Africa 3l'"P«^ts 226 

)  Exports 167 


Annual  Trade  of  the  United  States  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1891--95. 


1871-75.        1881-"85. 

Imports 578  667 

Exports 486  774 


872 


1891. 

1897. 

6,783 

7,169 

5,123 

5,415 

1,479 

1,500 

1,671 

1.894 

773 

924 

884 

962 

359 

264 

335 

290 

237 

425 

227 

339 

ON  Dollars) 

1898. 

1899. 

616 

799 

1,210 

1,275 

Chief  Articles  of  United  States  Exports  in  1898 
(IN  Million  Dollars) 

Breadstufifs 318 

Cotton 233 

Meat  and  dairy  products 175 

Iron  and  manufactures 83 

Oils,  mineral 53 

Animals 41 


Lumber  and  manufactures 
Copper  and  manufactures. 
Tobacco,  unmanufactured. 
Leather  and  manufactures 

Cotton  goods 

All  other  exports 


39 
35 
24 
22 
20 
419 


'the  united  states 


]fi 


u 


United  Kingdom 534 

Germany 153 

Fi-ance 94 

British  North  America  .  79 

Netherlands 03 

Belgium  47 

Italy 23 

Other  Europe 47 

West  Indies 20 

Mexico 20 

Japan 20 


Ex-      Im- 
ports, ports. 

109 


Distribution  of  United  States  Commerce  in  1898 
(in  Million  Dollars) 

Ex-  Im- 
ports, ports. 

Africa 17  7 

British  Australasia 10  6 

Brazil 13  02 

China 10  20 

Other  Asia 14  47 

Argentina 6  6 

Venezuela 3  8 

Other  South  America.  ..   11  17 

Central  American  states.     5  7 

Other  North  America...     2  0.8 

Hawaiian  Islands 6  17 


20 
33 
32 
19 
25 


Growth  of  Export  Trade  in  Manufactures  (Percentage  of 
Total  Exports) 


1890. 
17 


1895. 
23 


24 


1899. 

28 


1900. 
31 


CHAPTEE   XVII 

UNITED    STATES    COLONIES    AND    CUBA 

PoKTO  Eico — The  Terkitory  of  Hawaii — Guam — 
TuTuiLA — The  Philippine  Islands— Cuba 

Porto  Rico  is  a  land  of  smaU  farmers.  Four  fifths  of  the 
population  live  in  the  rural  districts.  The  island  (Fig.  77), 
ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United  States  in  1898,  is  about  three 
times  as  large  as  Ehode  Island.  With  nearly  1,000,000  in- 
habitants, it  surpasses  in  density  of  population  all  the  states, 
except  Ehode  Island  and  Massachusetts.  The  density  of 
population  is  more  than  seven  times  that  of  Cuba.  The 
main  reasons  are  that  Porto  Eico  is  the  most  healthful 
island  of  the  Antilles,  and  that  when  it  was  a  colony  of 
Spain  that  country  encouraged  settlement  by  allotting 
lands  gratis,  and  by  exempting  colonists  from  direct  taxa- 
tion. 

There  are  alluvial  plains  near  the  coasts,  but  nine  tenths 
of  the  island  is  volcanic  mountains  and  limestone  foothills. 
The  higher  mountains,  extending  through  the  center,  east 
and  west,  condense  the  moisture-laden  trade  winds,  with 
the  result  that  the  northern  part  of  the  island  has  an 
abundant  rainfall ;  the  southern  part  is  irrigated  in  the 
dry  periods.  Elvers  in  the  north  therefore  better  serve 
transportation  purposes  than  in  the  south ;  more  of  the 
larger  coffee  and  sugar  plantations  are  in  the  north,  whose 
ports  have  therefore  the  larger  commercial  movement. 

The  Creoles,  Spanish  descendants  of  the  better  class, 
live  in  the  towns  and  control  business.  The  other  classes 
168 


UNITED  STATES  COLONIES  AND  CUBA 


169 


are  the  Gibaros,  or  white  peasantry,  the  negroes,  number- 
ing only  about  50,000,  and  the  Mestizos,  or  mixed  white 
and  black  races. 

Cattle  on  the  hills  cost  almost  nothing  to  keep.  Fruit 
farms  on  the  lower  slopes  and  in  the  valleys  predominate, 
but  maize,  mountain  rice,  as  well  as  much  coffee  and  to- 


Jj»*« 


Road,  San  Juan  to  Ponce 


Fig. 


-Porto  Rico. 


Playa.  accommodating  vessels  of  25  feet  draught,  is  the  port  of  Ponce,  and  the  best  sea- 
port, but  San  Juan  has  the  larger  commercial  movement.  It  is  difficult  for  ships 
to  enter  the  narrow  harbor  of  San  Juan  when  a  norther  blows,  San  Juan  is  the 
capital  and  largest  city.  Ponce,  the  second  city,  is  a  busy  trading  and  shipping 
point.  Mayaguez,  the  third  city,  is  second  only  to  San  Juan  in  coflfee  exports, 
and  receives  a  third  of  the  flour  sent  to  the  island.  Aguadilla  prepares  coffee  for 
export  and  makes  rum  from  molasses.  Arecibo  is  merely  an  open  roadstead,  but 
the  Rio  Grande  makes  it  a  center  for  receiving  and  distributing  commodities. 
Fajardo  and  Arroyo  export  raw  sugar  and  molasses.  Industries,  confined  mainly 
to  these  ports  and  the  inland  towns  of  San  German  and  Naguabo,  include  the  prep- 
aration of  sugar  and  coffee  for  market,  and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  choco- 
late (at  Mayaguez),  soap,  matches,  brooms,  rum,  straw  hats,  and  petroleum  re- 
fining (at  San  .luan). 

bacco,  and  other  common  food  crops  are  raised  on  small 
farms.  The  larger  sugar  and  cotton  plantations  are  mainly 
on  the  narrow  alluvial  plains.  The  coffee  estates  are  high 
up  on  the  hills  where  the  crop  grows  be.st.  The  finest  to- 
bacco districts  are  in  the  mountain  region  of  the  interior, 
and  the  choicest  leaf  is  grown  along  the  road  from  Ponce 
to  San  Juan,  in  Ponce  and  Cuayama  provinces.  Building 
and  cabinet  timbers  and  dycwoods  grow  mainly  in  tlie 
higher  parts  of  the  island.     Tlie  mineral  resources  are  not 


170  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

large.  Salt  is  obtained  by  eraporating  brine  at  Cabo  Rojo, 
rjuanica,  and  Coamo,  which  supply  the  island.  Magnetic 
iron,  near  Juncos,  is  the  most  valuable  mineral  resource  yet 
discovered.  Gypsum,  near  Ponce  and  Juan  a  Diaz,  is  im- 
portant in  a  land  where  much  plaster  is  used  for  stucco, 
and  fertilizers  are  needed. 

Most  roads  are  mere  paths,  but  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment is  remedying  this  defect.  A  fine  macadam  road 
extends  from  Ponce  to  San  Juan,  and  several  sections  of  the 
railroad,  which  is  to  skirt  the  entire  coast,  are  in  operation. 
Nearly  all  the  important  commercial  towns  are  seaports 
(Fig.  77).  By  means  of  the  navigable  rivers  goods  are  sent 
from  the  coast  towns  and  jiroducts  taken  to  them  in  canoes 
and  flatboats  propelled  by  poling. 

The  agricultural  staples  being  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  fruit,  it  is  obvious  that  the  densely  peopled  island 
needs  to  import  large  food  supplies.  Xearly  half  the  im- 
ports ($10,000,000)  is  food — mainly  rice  from  the  other 
West  Indies,  cured  fish  from  Canada,  and  meat,  lard,  and 
flour  from  the  United  States.  As  manufactures  are  re- 
stricted, nearly  half  the  imports  are  cotton  cloths,  shoes, 
fancy  goods,  and  household  articles,  purchased  mainly  in 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  Coal  is  a  con- 
siderable import,  as  the  island  has  no  coal  mines.  The  ex- 
ports nearly  equal  the  imports  in  value,  and  coffee  and 
raw  sugar  are  the  staples  of  this  trade.  In  1895  coffee 
comprised  about  60  and  sugar  28  per  cent  of  the  exports, 
with  tobacco  and  honey  next  in  importance.  A  great  deal 
of  tobacco  is  sent  to  Cuba  for  manufacture  into  cigars ; 
practically  all  the  sugar  and  molasses  and  a  small  part  of 
the  coffee  come  to  the  United  States. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  at  the  crossroads  of  trade  in  the 
central  Pacific.  They  form  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
annexed  in  1898,  and  include  eight  inhabited  islands  (Fig. 
78).  Though  the  area  is  nearly  twice  that  of  Porto  Rico, 
the  population  is  only  about  one  ninth  as  large.    The  group 


UNITED  STATES  COLONIES  AND  CUBA 


171 


is  far  from  all  other  lands,  but  its  position  at  the  meeting 
point  of  trade  routes  in  the  central  Pacific  (Fig.  1)  gives  it 
great  advantages  in  frequent  and  regular  steam  communi- 
cations with  America,  Asia,  and  Australia.     The  ship  canal 


^ 


NIIllAl>/(!  CRATTrkS, 


iUCWR.  COEFEE 


o      c 


Wuianae  Sp! 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


""'^kAOAlIC     1     .0- 


is^ 


iV 


160       LoDsitude      ISO  West  158  from  157       Grecnvtich      158 


Fig.  78.— Honolulu  is  an  important  way  station  between  Anistrnlia  and  Asia  on  one 
Bide  and  America  on  the  other,  being  connected  by  regular  .•steamship  lines  with 
the  three  continent.s  (Fig.  1).  Steamers  and  sailing  vessels  ply  between  Hono- 
lulu and  other  island  ports,  carrying  merchandise  to  the  islands  and  bringing  their 
sugar  and  other  export  products  to  the  capital  for  shipment.  Hilo.  on  Hawaii,  is 
the  second  port  in  importance.  All  the  islands  have  one  or  more  little  ports,  but 
none  except  Honolulu  has  direct  steam  communications  with  America  or  foreign 
lands.    Kalaupapa  and  Kalawao,  near  it,  are  the  leper  settlements  on  Molokai. 


between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  will  give  the  islands 
still  larger  participation  in  the  world's  trade. 

The  islands  are  conspicuous  for  higli  volcanic  moun- 
tains and  fertile  plains  and  valleys.  Hawaii  has  about  two 
thirds  of  the  total  area ;  but  Oahu,  which  is  as  large  as  the 
Society  group,  is  the  most  populous  and  by  far  the  most 
important  commercially,  for  it  attracts  settlers  and  ocean 
trade  on  account  of  the  superiority  and  central  position  in 
the  group  of  Honolulu  harbor.  Maui  corresponds  in  size 
with  the   Marquesas  group,  and   tlie   island   of  Hawaii  is 


172  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

nearly  as  large  as  all  the  other  island  groups  of  Polynesia. 
Thus  both  the  position  and  size  of  the  group  give  it  a  far 
greater  importance  than  that  of  any  other  islands  in  Poly- 
nesia. 

The  climate,  which  is  healthful  and  agreeable,  is  about 
ten  degrees  cooler  than  any  other  land  in  the  same  lati- 
tude, owing  to  the  northeast  trade  winds,  which  refresh  and 
strengthen  animal  and  plant  life.  Great  quantities  of  rain 
fall  on  the  windward  side  of  the  mountains,  and  much  less 
on  the  leeward  side  ;  but  most  parts  of  the  islands  usually 
have  all  the  rain  required  by  the  crops.  Sheep  and  cattle 
graze  on  the  mountain  sloj^es,  and  large  sugar  and  rice 
plantations  are  on  the  fertile  lower  lands. 

The  inhabitants  (154,001  in  1900)  live  mainly  along  the 
coast.  About  one  fourth  are  native  Hawaiians,  who  are 
rapidly  decreasing.  About  three  sevenths  are  Chinese  and 
Japanese.  There  are  11,000  Portuguese.  The  Americans, 
British,  and  other  European  elements  are  rapidly  increas- 
ing. They  control  the  planting  and  commercial  interests, 
which  are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  settlers  from  the  United 
States  and  their  descendants. 

Raw  cane  sugar  is  the  staple  product,  the  territory  be- 
ing the  third  largest  producer  of  this  commodity  (Fig.  45). 
About  300,000  tons  of  sugar  are  produced  every  year. 
Xearly  all  the  money  not  needed  in  business  goes  into  sugar 
planting.  The  plantations  are  owned  by  stock  companies, 
and  both  rich  and  poor  buy  the  stock,  which  is  nearly  all 
held  in  the  islands.  Any  cause  that  lowers  the  price  of 
sugar  makes  every  one  poorer.  Rice  and  bananas  are  the 
next  largest  crops.  Coffee  planting  is  still  a  young  industry. 
Much  attention  is  given  to  tropical  fruits,  and  the  breeding 
of  domestic  animals.  Continuous  cropping,  without  alter- 
nation of  crops,  makes  fertilizers  necessary,  and  about 
10,000  tons  a  year  are  prepared  in  the  islands,  in  addition 
to  large  imports  from  the  United  States  and  Europe.  All 
lumber  is  imported  from  the  United  States,  fir,  spruce,  and 


UNITED   STATES   COLONIES  AND   CUBA  173 

cedar  coming  from  PugeL  Sound,  and  redwood,  oak,  ash, 
and  hickory  from  California.  Wearing  apparel,  dry  goods, 
and  tobacco  manufactures  are  large  imi:>orts.  Bagging  is 
brought  from  India,  coal  from  Australia,  and  cement, 
crockery,  tin  plate,  and  some  other  articles  from  Europe. 
About  74  per  cent  of  the  imports  in  1898  came  from  the 
United  States,  and  11  per  cent  from  Great  Britain.  Raw 
sugar  is  the  only  export  of  large  importance,  comprising 
over  nineteen  twentieths  of  the  total.  It  is  sent  mainly  to 
California  refineries. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  of  the  territory,  contains  one 
fourth  of  the  population,  and  is  the  chief  seaport  and  com- 
mercial center  (Fig.  78).  The  islands  have  long  been  as 
closely  bound  to  the  United  States  by  business  relations  as 
Algeria  is  to  France.  Xine  tenths  of  the  total  trade  is 
with  the  United  States,  which  being  only  about  2,000  miles 
from  Honolulu,  offers  reduced  freight  rates,  and  therefore 
cheaper  commodities.  A  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United 
States  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  development  of  the  isl- 
ands. Manufactures  are  the  largest  imports ;  machinery  is 
the  largest  item.  The  iron  works  at  Honolulu  turn  out  much 
sugar  machinery,  but  all  farm  implements,  small  locomo- 
tives for  the  sugar  estate  railroads,  other  rolling  stock, 
liardware,  and  many  other  articles  are  bought  in  the 
United  States,  as  are  the  large  imports  of  groceries  and 
provisions. 

Guam  is  the  largest  island  in  the  Ladrones  (Fig.  30).  This 
island  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  in  1808.  Its 
area  is  about  390  square  miles.  It  produces  copra  for  ex- 
port, and  will  be  a  coaling  and  cable  station. 

Tutuila  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  Pacific.  It  is  a 
volcanic  island  in  tlie  Sainoau  group,  containing  less  than 
GO  square  miles,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States  in  1899.  Pago-Pago,  its  fine  landlocked  harbor,  is 
useful  as  a  coaling  station,  and  likely  to  become  a  port  of 
call  for  steamers.     Cojira  is  the  largest  export  pro.duct. 


174 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Philippines  are  the  largest  island  group  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago  (Fig.  TO).  Luzou  is  the  fourteenth  in  size  and 
Miuilauao  the  sixteenth  among  the  large  islands  of  the 


Fio.  79. 


UNITED  STATES  COLO -VIES  AND   CUBA  175 

world.  The  group  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  New  England 
states,  Xew  York,  and  New  Jersey.  If  its  northern  edge 
were  placed  upon  the  north  point  of  Scotland,  its  southern 
edge  would  touch  the  toe  of  Italy. 

Volcanic  mountain  ranges  are  the  predominant  topo- 
graphic feature.  Most  of  the  valleys  are  narrow,  but  where 
the  land  widens  between  the  mountains,  as  in  central  and 
northern  Luzon  and  Mindanao,  there  are  comparatively 
broad,  well-watered  plains.  These  plains  and  the  valleys 
are  tillable,  but  not  more  than  a  third  of  the  surface  is 
adapted  for  agriculture.  The  climate  is  tropical,  the  tem- 
perature ranging  between  GO''  and  100^  F.  Being  an  in- 
sular climate,  the  night  breezes  usually  afford  some  relief 
from  the  heat  of  the  days. 

The  population,  mostly  Malayan,  is  densest  in  Luzon 
and  the  Visayas,  or  central  islands.  It  is  least  dense  south 
of  the  10th  parallel,  where  the  smallest  progress  has  been 
made.  Most  of  the  trade  with  foreign  countries  is  as  yet 
confined  to  the  islands  north  of  the  10th  parallel. 

The  capacity  of  the  people  for  advancement  has  been 
demonstrated.  They  are  closely  related  by  race  and  char- 
acter to  the  Javanese  who,  under  the  Dutch  regime^  have 
made  their  islands  one  vast  garden.  The  white  residents, 
about  25,000,  are  Spanish,  American,  British,  and  Ger- 
man. The  external  trade,  except  with  Spain,  has  been 
stimulated  chiefly  by  British,  American,  and  German  mer- 
chants. About  50,000  Chinese  in  the  seaports  and  other 
towns  engage  in  many  trades,  and  the  wealthier  have  an 
important  share  in  the  retail,  wholesale,  and  banking  busi- 
nesses. 

The  great  agricultural  resources  are  mostly  undevel- 
oped. The  methods  of  tillage  are  so  crude  and  so  much 
good  land  is  unoccupied  that  the  production  may  be  in- 
creased over  tenfold.  The  coast  lands,  plains,  and  valleys, 
from  north  Luzon  to  south  Xegros,  produce  large  quanti- 
ties of  Manila  hemp  (p.  103),  raw  sugar,  tobacco,  cocoanuts, 


176  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

and  copra.  These  are  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Manila 
hemp,  which  is  in  great  demand,  comprises  about  one  third 
of  the  exports.  The  islands  have  a  monopoly  of  the  cul- 
ture, and  the  development  of  hemp  raising  is  one  of  the 
brightest  prospects.  The  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
take  nearly  all  the  crop.  Eaw  cane  sugar  is  over  one  fifth 
of  the  exports,  but  is  coarse  and  brings  a  low  price  (com- 
pare Cuba,  p.  179).  The  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Japan,  and  Spain  buy  most  of  it.  The  best  tobacco  is 
raised  in  the  wide  valley  of  the  Cagayan,  in  north  Luzon, 
and  is  shipped  to  Manila,  from  Aparri,  for  manufacture 
into  cigars  and  cheroots.  It  holds  the  place  in  eastern  com- 
merce that  Havana  tobacco  does  in  western  trade.  Most 
tobacco  raised  south  of  Manila  is  not  so  fine,  and  much 
of  it  is  shipped  in  leaf  to  Spain.  The  cocoa  palm  attains 
perfection ;  large  quantities  of  copra,  the  dried  kernel  of 
the  cocoanut,  are  sent  to  Marseilles  for  soap  making.  Two 
crops  of  rice,  the  staple  food,  are  raised  annually,  but  the 
enormous  product  does  not  meet  the  demand  and  large 
quantities  are  imported,  mainly  from  Cochin  China.  Coffee, 
pepper,  and  cotton  are  raised,  but  are  not  yet  commercially 
important.  ^S^early  all  tropical  fruits  are  gr-own.  The  for- 
ests are  among  the  finest  in  the  world,  growing  many  of  the 
finest  cabinet  and  dyewoods,  as  yet  little  utilized.  Minerals 
are  widely  distributed  (Fig.  79),  but  this  source  of  wealth  is 
hot  yet  developed.  Manufactures  have  little  development 
except  at  Manila,  where  cigar  making  is  the  largest  indus- 
try, and  sugar  refining,  distilling,  cotton  spinning,  and  a 
few  other  enterprises  are  established. 

By  far  the  most  important  seaports  are  Manila,  Iloilo, 
and  Cebu.  Most  of  the  sugar  exports  from  Manila  are 
produced  in  Luzon,  while  those  of  the  central  islands  are 
shipped  largely  from  Cebu.  Manila  Bay  is  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world ;  the  port  occupies  a  central  position 
between  the  Asian  coasts  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
is  destined  to  be,  like  Hong-Kong  and  Singapore,  a  great 


^~ 


.^«£ei 


CUTTING    FLAX. 


HARVESTING    ilKMP. 

THE   FIBER   INDUSTRY. 


UNITED  STATES  COLONIES  AND  CUBA  177 

collecting  and  distributing  point  for  the  trade  of  those 
regions. 

Telegraph  and  cable  lines  to  connect  all  the  islands 
and  interior  points  with  the  coasts  are  being  built.  Tho 
main  ports  are  connected  by  cable  with  Hong-Kong  and 
thus  with  the  world's  cable  system  (Fig.  6).  Manila  has 
regular  steam  connections  with  Hong-Kong,  Singapore, 
Yokohama,  and  Australia,  and  a  monthly  service  to  Liver- 
pool via  Barcelona. 

While  the  United  States  has  long  bought  a  fourth  or 
more  of  Philippine  exports,  its  share  in  the  imports  has 
been  insignificant,  but  its  new  relations  with  the  island  are 
expected  to  develop  a  large  import  trade.  The  principal 
imports  are  cotton  cloths,  hardware,  and  machinery.  Kus- 
sian  kerosene  has  thus  far  competed  with  the  American, 
article.  About  two  thirds  of  the  total  over-sea  trade  is 
exports. 

Cuba  is  the  largest  fertile  island  in  America  (Fig.  80). 
About  one  half  of  the  total  area  of  the  West  Indies  is  em- 
braced in  it.  Few  lands  have  greater  natural  commercial 
advantages.  Its  coasts,  indented  to  a  remarkable  degree, 
provide  many  excellent  harbors.  The  island  does  not  at- 
tain great  elevation.  Its  three  natural  divisions  are  (1) 
the  western  mountains  (Sierra  de  los  Organos),  on  whose 
southern  slopes  the  best  tobacco  is  raised ;  (3)  the  fertile 
central  plains,  interspersed  with  hills,  Avhere  most  of  the 
sugar  cane  is  grown,  giving  also  pasturage  in  times  of  peace 
to  over  8,000,000  cattle ;  and  (3)  the  higher  eastern  moun- 
tains, with  intervening  valleys  and  plateaus,  where  agricul- 
ture is  most  diversified,  but  the  total  product  is  least  im- 
portant. The  climate  is  hotter  than  that  of  Porto  Rico, 
liiit  for  a  tropical  country  it  is  favorable  for  the  white  races, 
largely  because  the  island  is  well  drained  by  many  streams, 
except  in  the  Zapata  swamp  region. 

More  than  half  the  population  arc  luitive  whites  of 
Spanish  origin.  Many  Spanish  immigrants  live  in  the 
13 


178 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


cities  and  engage 
in  commerce. 
About  one  half 
of  the  people  are 
negroes  or  mixed 
races.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  main 
pursuit.  Most  of 
the  labor  in  the 
tobacco  fields  is 
white,  while  that 
in  the  sugar-cane 
fields  is  black,  and 
not  always  in  ade- 
quate supply. 

The  staple 
crops  are  cane  su- 
gar and  tobacco. 
On  the  success 
of  these  crops  de- 
pends the  prosper- 
ity of  the  island. 
Cuba  is  the  largest 
cane-growing 
country  in  normal 
times,  when  it 
produces  fifty  per 
cent  more  raw  su- 
gar than  Java,  its 
nearest  competi- 
tor. The  pre-em- 
inence of  the  isl- 
and is  due  to  three 
factors:  (1)  The 
fertility  of  its  soil, 
which     produces 


UNITED   STATES  COLONIES  AND  CUBA  179 

seven  crops  Avith  one  planting  and  without  fertilizers  ;  (2) 
the  use  of  all  modern  inventions  for  improving  and  cheap- 
ening the  product ;  (3)  the  proximity  of  the  United  States, 
by  far  the  largest  cane-sugar  market  in  the  world.  The 
best  macliinery  and  methods  enable  Cuba,  Java,  and  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  to  produce  the  best  cane  sugar  (Fig.  45). 
In  Cuba  large  sugarhouses,  equipped  with  expensive  ma- 
chinery, work  the  cane  of  one  or  more  plantations  brought 
to  them  by  light  railroads ;  the  best  labor-saving  inventions 
are  used  for  cultivating  the  cane  and  for  extracting  and 
crystallizing  the  juices.  Sugar  and  molasses  are  tliiis  pro- 
duced so  cheaply  that  the  crop  is  profitable,  though  in  the 
other  West  Indies  the  decline  in  prices  has  crippled  the 
industry;  but  much  of  the  sugar  plant  was  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  Avar. 

Tobacco  in  Cuba  is  a  more  stable  crop,  because  its  suc- 
cess depends  solely  upon  the  amount  of  the  harvest.  It  is 
not  affected  by  competition,  because  Cuban  tobacco,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  region  in  the  west,  has  a 
distinctive  aroma  that  establishes  a  demand  at  good  prices 
and  places  it  in  a  class  by  itself.  The  crop  is  not  large, 
that  of  the  United  States,  for  example,  being  seven  and  of 
Austria-Hungary  five  times  as  great.  Large  quantities  of 
baled  leaf  are  exported  mainly  to  the  United  States  from 
Havana,  Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  and  Santiago.  Xearly  two 
thirds  of  the  entire  crop  is  exported,  including  nearly  200,- 
000,000  cigars  a  year. 

CoflEee,  once  an  export  crop,  has  declined  under  compe- 
tition with  Brazil  and  Java,  but  its  use  has  extended  and 
the  home  supply  is  supplemented  by  imports  from  Porto 
Rico  and  elsewhere.  The  cacao  tree  thrives  best  on  the 
eastern  uplands  where  most  of  the  cocoa  is  produced.  Co- 
coanuts  and  bananas,  raised  best  in  the  east,  are  exported 
from  Gibara  and  Baracoa.  The  export  timber  is  cedar  for 
making  cigar  boxes,  and  mahogany,  both  from  the  forested 
mountains  of  the  east.     Manganese  from  the  southeast  is 


130  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

exported  to  Pennsylvania  steel  works,  and  prime  iron  ore 
for  steel  making  is  shipped  from  Daiquiri  to  the  United 
States  and  Europe. 

Development  is  retarded  by  inadequate  means  of  inland 
transportation.  Railroads  connect  the  sugar  and  tobacco 
lands  of  the  west  with  the  seaports,  and  some  inland  towns 
of  the  east  with  the  coasts.  Roads  are  very  poor.  The 
Journey  from  Santiago  to  Havana  is  made  by  sea,  for  the 
two  largest  cities  are  not  connected  by  rail. 

Havana,  the  only  large  city  of  the  West  Indies,  has  a 
large  part  of  the  Cuban  sea  trade,  including  one  fifth  of 
the  sugar  and  all  the  "  Havana  tobacco "  exports.  San- 
tiago, Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  Matanzas,  and  smaller  ports 
handle  the  exports  of  regions  immediately  tributary  to 
them,  and  import  provisions  and  manufactured  goods. 

Cuba's  largest  trade  relations  are  naturally  with  its 
neighbor,  the  United  States.  In  the  four  years  before  the 
insurrection  of  1895  the  trade  of  Cuba  with  the  United 
States  averaged  $92,000,000  a  year,  nearly  three  times  the 
island's  trade  with  Spain,  and  eight  times  its  trade  with 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Belgium  together.  The  United 
States  not  only  buys  most  of  the  exports,  but  also  supplies 
most  of  the  food  stuffs  that  are  Cuba's  main  imports. 

While  sugar  and  tobacco  are  the  main  export  staples, 
honey,  wax,  hides,  and  rum  are  minor  exports.  From  1891 
to  1894  Cuba  sold  to  the  United  States  commodities  worth 
about  four  times  as  much  as  her  purchases  from  this  coun- 
try, Spain  supplying  Cuba  with  most  of  her  imports.  In 
1899  the  United  States  sold  products  to  Cuba  worth  five 
sixths  as  much  as  its  purchases  from  the  island. 

The  largest  imports  are  flour,  mainly  from  the  United 
States,  as  Cuba  raises  no  cereals,  and  rice  from  Europe  and 
the  other  West  Indies.  Cuba  is  the  chief  customer  of  the 
United  States  in  Latin  America  for  enormous  quantities 
of  lard,  hams,  and  bacon.  Being  a  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
try, a  great  deal  of  salt  fish  is  purchased,  mainly  from  Brit- 


UNITED  STATES  COLONIES  AND  CUBA  181 

ish  America.  Producing  no  coal,  the  coast  towns  buy  it  in 
large  quantities  from  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
Potatoes  and  maize  are  other  large  imports.  Cattle  are 
used  for  draught  purposes,  fresh  beef,  dairying,  and 
hides,  but  domestic  beef  is  not  cured,  and  jerked  beef  is 
a  large  import  from  South  America.  Xo  textiles  are  pro- 
duced, but  the  imports  are  small  in  comparison  with  the 
food  imports.  Builders'  hardware,  railroad  materials,  kero- 
sene, and  lumber  are  other  large  imports. 

Annual  Trade  of  Hawah  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1891-'95. 

Imports 5.8 

Exports 9.3 


1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

8.8 

11.6 

19.0 

16.0 

17.3 

22.6 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

CANADA    AND   NE"WFOUNDIiANB 

Canada,  the  most  important  colony  of  Great  Britain,  is  very 
favorably  situated  for  commerce.  With  the  ocean  on  three 
sides,  and  the  Great  Lakes  on  its  southern  border,  the 
markets  of  Europe,  the  United  States,  and  the  Orient  are 
very  accessible.  The  Atlantic  ports  are  nearer  to  north 
European  markets  than  those  of  the  United  States.  Thus 
Montreal,  though  far  inland,  is  300  miles  nearer  to  Liver- 
pool than  Xew  York,  owing  to  the  smaller  circumference 
of  the  earth's  surface  in  the  more  northern  latitude.  All 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ports,  however,  are  closed  by  ice 
in  winter.  Montreal's  sea  traffic  during  the  ice  months  is 
through  Halifax,  X.  S.,  and  Portland,  Me.,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail.  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  is  closed  by  drift 
ice  for  three  months ;  Halifax,  Yarmouth,  and  Louisburg, 
in  Xova  Scotia,  and  St.  John,  in  Xew  Brunswick,  are  open 
the  year  round. 

Hudson  Bay  is  open  four  months  a  year,  including  the 
month  after  the  wheat  harvest.  A  railroad  may  be  built 
from  the  wheat  lands  of  the  central  prairies  to  one  of  the 
good  harbors  at  the  mouths  of  the  Churchill  or  Xelson 
rivers  (Fig.  81),  thus  making  a  short  summer  route  for 
grain  from  Winnipeg  to  Liverpool. 

The  ports  of  Victoria,  Vancouver,  and  Xew  West- 
minster, on  the  Pacific  coast,  are  outlets  to  the  markets 
of  the  Orient  and  Australasia.  The  northern  coast  is  of 
no  value  for  commerce  on  account  of  the  climate,  but 
on  the  southern  border  the  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes 
182 


CANADA   AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 


183 


tlirough  Toron- 
to, Kingston, 
Hamilton,  and 
other  jiorts  is 
very  large. 

The  settled 
areas  comprise 
forest,  plain, 
and  mountain 
regions  (Fig. 
81).  Forests 
once  covered 
the  entire  east- 
ern half,  but 
millions  of 
acres,  cleared  of 
trees,  are  now 
devoted  to  care- 
ful tillage  and 
extensive  graz- 
ing, so  that  the 
chief  products 
of  eastern  Can- 
ada are  farm 
crops,  fruit,  live 
stock,  cheese, 
butter,  timber, 
and  the  fish 
caught  along 
the  coast.  The 
prairies  and 
plains  extend 
through  the 
central  region 
from  Manitoba 
to   British  Co- 


184  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

lumbia.  ^N'owhere  else  in  Canada  can  wheat  be  grown  so 
cheaply  as  on  the  prairie  lands  of  Manitoba  and  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Qu'Appelle  and  Saskatchewan  ;  in  the  drier 
regions  of  southern  Assiniboia  and  Alberta  cattle,  horses, 
and  sheep  are  raised  on  many  ranches,  and  dairying  is 
becoming  important.  British  Columbia  is  the  mountain 
region.  The  river  valleys  and  deltas  of  the  southern  part 
are  rich  farming  lands,  where  cereals  and  fruits  are  raised. 
The  widespread  forests  supply  many  sawmills,  chiefly  with 
conifers,  and  the  fisheries  are  an  important  source  of  wealth, 
but  gold,  silver,  and  coal  are  the  most  important  resources 
of  this  region. 

The  barren  lands,  extending  from  northwest  Labra- 
dor nearly  to  the  Mackenzie  River,  and  the  frozen  Arctic 
regions  have  little  value  except  for  their  minerals.  Abun- 
dant evidence  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  coal,  and  other 
minerals  has  been  found  in  the  barren  lands,  which  will 
be  a  subarctic  mining  province  when  transportation  is  sup- 
plied. 

The  climate  is  continental  (p.  7).  It  is  a  land  of  cold 
winters  and  warm  summers.  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
snow  covers  the  ground  from  three  to  five  months,  but 
the  growing  season  is  long  and  warm  enough  to  mature 
crops,  and  make  Canada  a  great  farming  country.  Even 
though  the  winter  at  Montreal  is  as  cold  as  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, the  summer  is  as  warm  as  in  northern  Spain.  The 
long  summer  days  ripen  maize,  which  is  a  staple  crop  in 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  though  it  can  not  be  grown  in  Eng- 
land. The  lakes  and  rivers  are  always  full,  showing  that 
there  is  abundant  rainfall.  The  moisture  is  excessive  on 
the  mild  Pacific  coast,  but  the  Rocky  Mountains  arrest  the 
rain-bearing  winds  from  the  Pacific,  so  that  there  are  dry 
belts  east  of  British  Columbia.  Southern  Assiniboia  is  the 
driest  part  of  Canada.  In  the  great  ranching  region  of 
southern  Alberta  irrigation  by  means  of  unf-ailing  streams 
fed  by  mountain  snows  has  developed  agriculture. 


CANADA  AND  NEWPODNDLAND  185 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry.  Seven  tenths  of  the 
people  are  farmers.  One  fourth  of  the  country  is  capa- 
ble of  tillage,  but  more  than  half  of  the  arable  lands  will 
not  be  utilized  for  a  long  time,  because  they  lack  popu- 
lation and  means  of  transportation.  Thus  the  fine  wheat 
lands  of  western  Athabasca,  to  which  the  warm  chinook 
winds  bring  a  moderate  climate,  are  a  reserve  source  of 
wealtli  to  be  used  when  more  accessible  regions  are  fully 
occuijied. 

Wheat  and  flour  are  the  largest  food  export  (p.  194).  On- 
tario and  Quebec  long  produced  most  of  the  wheat,  but 
the  present  center  of  its  cultivation  is  the  prairies  of  Mani- 
toba, whose  black,  loamy  soil  rests  upon  a  substratum  of 
clay,  which  keeps  the  moisture  derived  from  heavy  snows 
within  reach  of  the  plant.  About  half  the  wheat  is  grown 
on  these  prairies.  The  export  grain  is  sent  by  rail  and 
lake  routes  to  Montreal,  which  ships  most  of  the  wheat, 
maize,  and  oats  sent  out  of  Canada.  Fort  William,  near 
Port  Arthur,  on  Lake  Superior,  and  Owen  Sound,  on 
Georgian  Bay  (Lake  Huron),  are  the  gateways  for  the  ship- 
ment of  the  western  grain  crop ;  and,  as  it  is  handled  chiefly 
at  these  ports  and  in  Montreal,  very  large  elevators  have 
been  built  at  these  towns.  Most  of  the  wheat  and  flour 
exports  go  to  the  United  Kingdom.  A  great  deal  of  United 
States  wheat  goes  down  the  St.  Lawrence  on  the  way  to 
Europe,  but  few  breadstuffs  are  sent  into  Canada  for  con- 
sumption there.  Maize  and  oats  are  large  export  crops  in 
the  eastern  provinces.  Oats,  barley,  and  rye,  being  hardier 
tlian  wheat,  thrive  north  of  the  wheat  belt  on  the  central 
prairies  us  well  as  in  Ontario  and  Qiiebec. 

The  southeastern  part  of  Ontario,  nearly  surrounded 
by  the  Great  Lakes,  is  the  garden  of  Canada,  The  south- 
ern counties  produce  the  clioicest  fruits,  including  grapes 
for  wine  and  table  use.  More  than  one  third  of  tlie  apples 
imported  by  trhe  United  Kingdom  come  from  tlie  orchards 
of  Ontario  and  Nova  Scotia. 


ISG  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Animal  industries  are  mainly  centered  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces. As  Manitoba  has  grown  in  wheat  production,  the 
farmers  of  Ontario  and  the  maritime  provinces  have  turned 
their  attention  more  largely  to  dairying,  wool,  and  the  rais- 
ing of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  for  the  British  market. 
Canada  supplies  about  one  third  of  the  horses  imported 
into  British  cities  for  omnibus,  cab,  and  other  traction. 
Live  cattle  sent  to  Great  Britain  for  slaughter  are  worth 
about  five  times  as  much  per  annum  as  the  exports  of 
horses  (p.  194) ;  but  Canada  has  as  yet  only  a  small  part  in 
the  dressed-beef  trade,  which  is  so  large  a  feature  of  ex- 
ports in  the  United  States,  Argentina,  and  Australasia. 
While  Ontario  is  the  largest  cattle  grower,  the  ranches  of 
Alberta,  watered  by  streams  from  the  Eocky  Mountains 
and  covered  with  bunch  and  buifalo  grasses  that  are  nutri- 
tious, even  when  sear  and  yellow  in  wdnter,  are  raising 
thousands  of  cattle  for  export  or  for  sale  to  the  new  min- 
ing towns  in  British  Columbia.  The  export  of  dressed 
poultry  in  cold  storage  is  a  growing  industry.  Thousands 
of  chickens  and  turkeys  from  Canada  are  kept  irozen  in 
British  cities  for  weeks  before  they  are  consumed. 

Canada  is  the  largest  exporter  of  cheese  in  the  world 
(p.  194).  Cheese  making  is  carried  on  mainly  in  Ontario. 
Four-fifths  of  the  product  of  nearly  3,000  factories  is  sent 
to  Great  Britain.  These  factories  have  so  high  a  reputa- 
tion for  prime,  uniform  products,  that  the  United  King- 
dom takes  half  of  its  cheese  imports  from  Canada.  Cana- 
dian butter  also  brings  a  high  price  in  British  markets. 

The  fisheries  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world  (p.  92). 
About  70,000  men  are  employed  in  them.  The  most  valu- 
able are  those  of  tlie  Atlantic  coast.  The  Labrador  current 
brings  to  the  shallow  waters  of  the  coasts  and  banks  billions 
of  algae,  that  are  the  food  of  the  cod,  mackerel,  shad,  had- 
dock, and  halibut  (Fig.  50).  As  hundreds  of  vessels  sail 
from  France,  the  United  States,  and  other  countries  to 
share  this  sea  wealth,  Canada  maintains  a  fleet  of  cruisers 


CANADA   AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  187 

to  enforce  observance  of  the  three-mile  limit  and  other 
fishing  regulations  (p.  83).  The  lobster  fisheries  along  the 
coast  of  Canada  and  Newfoundland  are  the  most  produc- 
tive in  the  world.  The  catch  of  Xova  Scotia,  over  one 
fourth  of  the  total  product,  is  mainly  Cod,  lobsters,  and  her- 
ring. Xew  Brunswick,  the  next  largest  producer,  catches 
more  herring  than  all  the  rest  of  Canada  and  sells  most  of 
the  product  in  the  United  States.  On  account  of  our 
tariff  on  fish-food  preparations  the  Xew  Brunswick  herring- 
are  sent  to  Eastport,  Me.,  where  nearly  forty  factories  can 
them  as  sardines  (p.  86). 

British  Columbia  contributes  almost  one  fourth  of  the 
fishery  products,  nearly  all  salmon,  a  small  species  (best  for 
canning)  with  firm  flesh  and  rich  red  color.  It  spawns 
chiefly  in  remote  lakes  near  the  headwaters  of  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.  It  is  canned  in  large  quantities  on  these 
rivers,  and  most  extensively  on  the  Fraser  River.  A  dif- 
ferent species  of  salmon,  caught  in  streams  tributary  to 
the  St.  Lawrence,  is  identical  with  the  salmon  of  British 
rivers. 

As  the  lakes  and  rivers  abound  in  fish,  the  inland  fish- 
eries are  very  productive  as  well  as  those  of  the  sea.  The 
fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes,  consisting  mainly  of  white- 
fish,  trout,  herring,  sturgeon,  bass,  and  pickerel,  chiefly 
carried  on  in  Lake  Huron,  yield  about  one  twelfth  of  the 
entire  product. 

The  total  value  of  the  fisheries  is  about  $20,000,000  a 
year,  half  of  which  is  exported,  mainly  cod,  salmon,  lobster, 
and  herring.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  buy 
three  fourths  of  the  exports,  but  canned  salmon  is  sent  to 
many  countries,  and  large  quantities  of  cured  cod  to 
Roman  Catholic  lands  and,  most  of  all,  to  the  West  Indies. 
The  Atlantic  coast  fisheries  have  the  advantage  of  easier 
access  to  the  British,  Xew  York,  and  Boston  markets,  and 
also  to  ice  supplies,  which  are  essential  in  tlie  shipment  of 
fresh    fish;   but  the  pursuit    of  lialibut,  cod,  and  herring 


183  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

along  the  Pacific  coast  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  com- 
paratively smooth  water  there. 

Canada  is  one  of  the  largest  producers  of  furs  (p.  88). 
This  business,  excepting  sealskins,  is  monopolized  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  with  headquarters  at  Winnipeg. 
The  hunters  and  trappers  of  the  company,  many  of  them 
Indians,  are  scattered  all  over  the  northern  forests  and 
waste  lands.  Edmonton  is  the  chief  center  for  the  dis- 
patch of  hunting  and  trapping  parties.  The  furs  and 
skins,  baled  at  Winnipeg,  are  most  of  them  sent  up  the 
Eed  River  into  the  United  States  for  export.*  Pelagic  seal- 
ing (killing  seal  at  sea  while  on  their  way  to  or  from  their 
breeding  grounds)  was  long  carried  on  by  British  Colum- 
bian sealers  with  great  profit.  In  this  way  44,086  skins 
were  taken  in  1894.  As  the  industry  threatened  the  exter- 
mination of  the  fur  seal,  pelagic  sealing  was  prohibited  by 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Canada  has  a  larger  forest  area  than  any  other  lumber-pro- 
ducing country  (p.  114).  The  subarctic  forest  belt,  200  to 
300  miles  wide,  stretching  across  the  continent  from  Lab- 
rador to  Alaska,  contains  enormous  quantities  of  spruce 
and  poplar  adapted  for  wood  pulp.  This  forest  belt  can 
not  be  utilized  till  railroads  reach  it.  In  the  east,  the  sub- 
arctic forest  merges  into  the  region  of  pines,  spruce,  poplar, 
and  hardwoods  that  make  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  Xew 
Brunswick  the  largest  sources  of  lumber  and  pulp  wood  in 
the  country. 

Xew  Brunswick,  whose  most  valuable  woods  are  pine, 
hemlock,  and  maple,  is  more  completely  a  lumber  province 
than  any  other,  but  the  largest  lumber  product  comes  from 
Ontario.     Ottawa,  drawing  its  supplies  of  red  and  white 

*The  chief  product  in  1894  was:  Beaver,  46.779;  otter.  7.455; 
mink,  51,163;  marten.  108.997:  lynx,  12,81.3  (78,555  in  1888);  bear. 
9.173;  musk  rat.  648,687.  The  yield  has  been  decreasing  owing  to 
reckless  hunting.  The  otter,  yielding  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  furs, 
is  nearly  exterminated. 


CANADA   AXD   NEWFOUNDLAND  189 

pine  from  the  regions  west,  north,  and  east  of  it,  is  the 
greatest  center  of  lumber  manufactories.  Millions  of  logs, 
floated  down  the  Ottawa  and  other  rivers,  are  turned  into 
lumber  in  the  sawmills  at  Chaudiere  Falls,  near  the  city. 
The  product  is  sent  by  river  and  canal  to  Montreal,  or  by 
rail  to  the  Great  Lakes.  Deseronto,  on  Lake  Ontario,  is 
the  second  largest  center  of  lumber  making  in  the  province. 
Oak,  maple,  elm,  and  other  hardwoods  are  important  in  the 
lumber  output  of  Quebec,  and  the  city  of  Quebec  is  the 
largest  center  of  the  lumber  trade  in  that  province.  Hem- 
lock forests  and  cattle  growing  on  widespread  pasture 
lands  have  made  leather  tanning  an  important  industry  at 
Quebec  and  Fredericton,  X.  B.  The  paper  mills  of  ^'ew 
York  and  Maine  draw  considerable  supplies  of  wood  pulp 
and  pulp  wood  from  the  spruce-growing  provinces. 

The  coniferous  forests  of  British  Columbia  are  of  vast 
extent.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  output  from  the  mills 
is  Douglas  fir,  a  tough,  strong  timber  well  suited  for  masts 
and  building  purposes. 

Canada  exports  three  fifths  of  her  forest  products. 
Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Xew  Brunswick  send  the  larger 
part  of  their  lumber  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom,  but 
nearly  all  the  exports  of  Ontario  cross  the  Great  Lakes 
into  the  United  States.  Xo  other  countries  buy  important 
quantities. 

Gold  is  the  largest  mineral  product.  Canada  has  become 
fifth  among  the  gold-producing  countries  since  1897, 
owing  to  the  large  mining  development  on  the  Yukon  and 
in  British  Columbia  (Fig.  G8).  The  placer-gold  yield  of 
the  Klondike  (Yukon)  increased  from  $2,500,000  in  1897 
to  $16,000,000  in  1899,  when  it  produced  three  fourths  of 
Canada's  output.  The  British  Columbia  fields  are  largely 
grouped  along  the  Fraser  and  Colum1)ia  Rivers,  particularly 
in  the  Cariboo  district  of  the  north  and  the  Kootenai  sec- 
tion of  the  southeast.  Gold  mining  has  also  come  into 
prominence  near  Lake  of  the  ^^'oods  in  West  Ontario  and 


190  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

in  Nova  Scotia.  A  great  deal  of  gold  bullion  is  exported 
to  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Coal  is  the  second  largest  mineral  product.  The  value  of 
the  output  in  1899  was  over  $9,000,000  (Fig.  57).  Coal 
outcrops  (bituminous)  are  found  along  the  shores  both  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and  coal  measures  underlie  large 
areas  of  the  interior  plains ;  but  mining  is  carried  on  only 
where  transportation  is  at  hand,  as  at  Xanaimo  and  Comox, 
on  Vancouver  Island,  and  on  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands, 
these  British  Columbia  mines  supplying  nearly  half  the 
output ;  and  at  Lethbridge,  in  Alberta,  reached  by  a  branch 
road  from  the  Canadian  Pacific,  coal  from  which  is  exported 
to  mining  centers  in  Montana.  The  Xova  Scotia  fields 
along  the  north  side  of  the  peninsula,  and  those  on  Cape 
Breton  Island,  near  Sydney,  produce  excellent  steam  coal, 
which  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  shipping.  Anthracite 
of  good  quality  has  been  found  in  Alberta,  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  in  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 

The  presence  of  easily  mined  iron  ore  in  Xova  Scotia, 
at  Belle  Isle,  X.  F.,  and  in  some  coast  districts  of  Quebec, 
near  abundant  supplies  of  coal  and  limestone,  is  developing 
iron  industries  at  Xew  Glasgow,  Truro,  and  Londonderry, 
X.  S.,  Sydney,  C.  B.,  and  some  other  points  (Fig.  81). 
The  government  pays  a  bounty  on  every  ton  of  pig  iron 
produced. 

Xearly  half  the  world's  supply  of  nickel  comes  from 
the  Sudbury  district  in  Ontario  (p.  136).  A  sufficient  quan- 
tity has  been  located  there  to  supply  the  world  for  a  cen- 
tury at  the  present  rate  of  production.  The  largest  copper 
deposits  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sudbury ;  rich  copper 
ores,  have  long  been  mined  near  Algoma,  on  the  north- 
east shores  of  Lake  Huron.  Xative  copper,  such  as  has 
been  so  profitably  mined  in  the  Keweenaw  Peninsula  (p. 
129),  is  found  along  the  Canadian  shores  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  also  in  various  parts  of  British  Columbia.  The 
mines   among   the   gold   fields  of   Rossland  (Fig.  81)  pro- 


CANADA   AND  NEWFOUNDLAND  191 

duce  three  fourths  of  all  the  copper  mined  in  Canada, 
making  British  Columbia  the  largest  exporter.  The  larg- 
est development  of  Canada's  vast  mineral  resources  will  be 
in  the  future. 

Ontario  and  Quebec  are  foremost  in  manufactures.  Al- 
though Canada  is  mainly  a  producer  of  raw  materials, 
manufactures  have  made  large  progress  in  the  past 
twenty-five  years,  protected  as  they  are  by  high  tariff 
duties.  Industries  suffer  to  some  extent  (1)  from  the  fact 
that  the  United  States  pays  higher  wages  and  thus  attracts 
many  of  the  best  workmen,  and  (2)  because  the  populac^ 
tion  is  still  too  small  to  make  a  large  home  demand. 
Still  Canada  exports  many  articles,  as  agricultural  imple- 
ments, cheap  cottons,  woolens  and  clothing,  leather,  shoes, 
cutlery,  beer,  refined  sugar,  and,  most  of  all,  lumber  and 
other  forest  products.  Nearly  all  manufactures  are  grow- 
ing, except  the  building  of  Avooden  ships — once  a  great  in- 
dustry in  Xew  Brunswick — which  has  declined  with  the  in- 
troduction of  iron  and  steel  for  shij)  building.  Only  the 
coarser  kinds  of  textiles  are  made.  Most  of  the  manufac- 
tures exported  go  to  the  United  States,  Newfoundland,  and 
the  West  Indies ;  but  Great  Britain  is  the  largest  market 
for  Canadian  leather.* 

Commerce  is  promoted  by  a  great  inland  waterway. 
From  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  where  steamers  from  the  At- 
lantic enter  the  coastal  waters,  the  distance  to  the  head  of 
navigation  in  Lake  Superior  is  3,384  miles.  The  Gulf,  St. 
Lawrence  and  other  rivers,  and  the  lakes  afford  an  almost 
unbroken  waterway.     Canada  has  expended  180,000,000  in 

*  The  largest  center  of  manufaftures  is  Montreal,  which  produces 
refined  sugar,  leather  and  rubber  goods,  textiles,  steel  and  ironwares, 
cigars,  and  many  other  articles.  Quebec,  near  the  largest  leather-tan- 
ning districts,  makes  boots  and  shoes.  Ottawa  is  prei^mincnt  for  lum- 
ber. Kingston  has  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  and  locomotive  and  car 
works.  Toronto,  Hamilton,  and  Windsor  (opposite  Detroit)  are  also 
large  manufacturing  centers. 


192  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

constructing  and  improving  canals  along  the  St.  Lawrence, 
where  rapids  impede  navigation.  Vessels  drawing  four- 
teen feet  may  now  travel  from  Chicago  or  Duluth  to  Eu- 
ropean ports ;  but  larger  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes  take 
cargoes  to  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  at  the  Welland  Canal, 
where  they  are  transferred  to  canal  boats  for  Montreal, 
meeting  ocean  steamers  at  that  point.  The  Saskatche- 
wan, flowing  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Mackenzie,  empty- 
ing into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  afford  4,000  miles  of  navigable 
waterways  in  the  far  interior  of  the  country.  The  Riche- 
lieu Canal  to  Lake  Champlain  f»om  Montreal  opens  a 
water  route  to  the  Hudson  River.  Steamship  lines  con- 
nect Montreal  with  Liverpool,  Belfast,  Aberdeen,  and  New- 
castle.* 

A  network  of  railroads  connects  Canada  with  the 
United  States  at  many  points.  The  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
road, completed  in  1885,  is  the  most  direct  route  among 
American  transcontinental  lines  for  the  trade  between 
Europe  and  the  Orient.  Lines  of  Pacific  steamers  sail 
from  Vancouver  to  Japan,  China,  and  Australia. 

Most  of  Canada's  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  (p.  193).  Her  trade  with  each  country  is 
nearly  the  same  in  amount,  but  very  different  in  kind.  We 
do  not  require  many  of  Canada's  raw  materials,  while  the 
United  Kingdom  is  a  great  market  for  them.  Logs  and 
lumber  are  the  largest  export  to  this  country ;  metals,  coal, 
fish,  and  furs  are  also  important.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
United  States  manufactures  a  great  many  commodities 
that  Canada  needs.  It  pays  her  merchants  to  buy  them  in 
spite  of  a  preferential  tariff  in  favor  of  Great  Britain,  by 
Avhich  the  duties  on  British  goods  are  one  third  less  than 
those  on  imports  from  other  countries.  Thus  Canada  pur- 
chases many  more  commodities,  mainly  manufactures,  from 

*  About  7,000  sailing  vessels  and  steamers,  with  a  uet  tonnage  of 
over  700,000  tons,  are  owned  in  Canada, 


CANADA   AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  I93 

the  United  States  than  from  Great  Britain ;  and  sells  many 
more  commodities,  mainly  food  stuUs,  to  Great  Britain 
than  to  the  United  States.  Canada  buys  from  the  United 
States  nearly  twice  the  value  of  the  goods  she  sells  to  this 
country.  She  sells  to  Great  Britain  about  three  times  the 
value  of  goods  she  buys  from  her. 

Newfoundland  is  a  British  colony  distinct  from  Canada. 
Tlie  basis  of  its  industrial  support  is  catching  and  curing 
fish.  There  is  much  good  farming  land  in  the  west  of  the 
island  and  also  in  the  valleys,  but  the  surrounding  sea  is 
so  rich  in  fish  and  seals  that  agriculture  is  neglected. 
Most  of  the  population  engage  in  cod,  herring,  and  lobster 
fisheries  or  in  killing  the  hair  seal  for  its  oil  and  skin, 
of  which  leather  is  made.  Besides  cured  fish,  the  people 
produce  cod-liver  oil,  glue  from  fisli  skins,  and  fertilizers 
from  fish  offal.  Dried  codfish,  sent  to  the  West  Indies 
and  the  southern  countries  of  Europe  and  America,  is 
half  the  exports.  Lobster  canning  also  is  a  large  industry. 
The  imports,  chiefly  food  and  clothing,  come  from  Can- 
ada, the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United  States.  St. 
John's,  the  capital,  on  a  fine  landlocked  harbor,  is  wholly 
devoted  to  the  fishing  trade. 

STATISTICS   FOR  CANADA 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1871-'75.  1881-"85.  1891-'95.  1898. 

Exports 82.5  96.0  113.5  164.1 

Imports 117.5  116.5  122.0  1^50.7 

Trade  with  Leauixo  Countries  in  lb98  (in  Million   Dollars) 

Ex-  lin- 

jMjrts.  ports. 

Germuny 1.8  5.6 

France. 1.0  3.9 

(!hiiia  iiiid  .lai)aii 2.3 

r.cljriiiin 1.3 


Ex-  Im- 
ports, ports. 

Great  Britain 105.0  32.5 

United  Stales 45. 7  78. 7 

West  Indies 3.0  1.2 

Newfoundland 1.5  .... 

South  America  ....       0.8  .... 
13 


194 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Leading  Imports  and  Exports  in  1898  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Jmjmrts 
Iron  iind  steel  and  manufac- 
tures      16.4 


Coal  and  coke 

Woolens 

Sugar 

Cottons 

Tea  and  coffee 

Silk  and  manufactures 
Raw  wool 


9.4 
8.0 
5.6 
5.0 
2.7 
2.6 
1.9 
Total 130.7 


Exjwrts 

Wood  and  manufactures. . .  27.7 

Wheat  and  flour 22. 7 

Cheese 17.5 


Fish 

Cattle 

Gold  and  other  minerals. . 

Coal 

Leather  and  manufactures 


10.7 
8.7 

11.1 
3.3 
1.6 


Total 164.1 


Average  Annual  Trade  of  Newfoundland  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.   1890-'95.  I  1881-"83.     1890-'95. 

Exports 7.8        6.7     |  Imports 8.1  7.0 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    UNITED    KINGDOM    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN 
AND    IRELAND 

The  position  of  the  TJnited  Kingdom  gives  it  exceptional 
advantages  for  foreign  trade  (Fig.  1).  Lociited  ut  the  cen- 
ter of  the  northern  or  hind  hemisphere,  within  easy  reach 
of  the  densely  peopled  conntries  of  continental  Europe  and 
with  good  markets  on  all  sides,  it  is  splendidly  situated  for 
the  conflict  between  the  great  commercial  nations  for 
supremacy.  As  it  lies  far  north,  the  sunlight  needed  for 
crops  continues  up  to  seventeen  hours  a  day  in  the  chief 
growing  months ;  while  the  persistent  Avesterly  winds  blow- 
ing over  a  warm  sea  (anti-trades,  Fig.  8)  give  the  kingdom 
a  temperate  climate  with  abundant  moisture.  The  United 
States  and  Canada,  separated  from  it  by  the  narrow  part  of 
the  Atlantic,  are  its  largest  sources  of  food  supply,  and 
among  the  best  markets  for  its  manufactures.  Wliile  the 
kingdom  has  only  about  40,000,000  inhabitants,  the  British 
empire  comprises  nearly  one  fourth  of  the  world's  popu- 
lation, England's  vast  colonial  possessions  being  of  great 
advantage  in  ])roni()ting  tr;ide  (])]i.  oO,  31). 

England  has  the  advantage  of  the  equable  sea  climate 
(p.  7).  This  is  most  favorable  for  all  its  industries.  The 
western  highlands  have  a  marked  eifect  upon  the  climate, 
for  they  condense  a  large  part  of  tlie  vapor  that  tlie  wet 
anti-trades  bring  to  the  land,  so  that  the  average  rainfall  at 
Plymouth  in  the  west  is  forty  inches  while  at  London  in  tlie 
east  is  twenty-four  inches  a  year ;  but  although  the  high- 

195 


19C)  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

lands  receive  the  larger  amount  of  rainfall,  that  of  the  plain 
suffices  for  all  industrial  purposes.  Across  the  plain  impor- 
tant rivers  flow  gently  eastward  toward  continental  Europe 
with  currents  so  slow  that  they  are  easily  navigated  and  do 
not  clog  their  estuaries  with  sand  hars.  These  rivers,  which 
have  thus  given  rise  to  the  great  ports  of  the  east  coast, 
carry  a  large  amount  of  commerce. 

The  highlands  of  the  west  of  England  produce  the  larger 
part  of  the  manufactures ;  the  level  southeastern  part  of  the 
country  is  the  great  agricultural  tract.  The  higher  lands  are 
in  the  north  and  west,  and  the  lower  lands  in  the  east  and 
south.  The  sterile  Scottish  Highlands  are  the  least  pro- 
ductive areas,  the  poor  soil  and  cold  climate  rendering  agri- 
culture almost  impossible  ;  many  sheejD,  however,  graze  in 
the  valleys  where  the  scanty  population  lives ;  here,  too, 
large  forest  districts  are  maintained  as  game  preserves  by 
men  of  wealth.  The  fertile  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  with 
their  fields  of  oats  and  root  crops,  and  a  rich  supply  of 
coal  yielded  by  their  carboniferous  strata,  have  attained 
large  manufacturing  importance.  The  highlands  of  west 
England,  extending  south  of  the  Scottish  Lowlands  from 
near  Berwick  on  the  east  coast  to  the  English  ChanueLat 
Exeter  (Fig.  82),  yield  tin,  iron,  slate,  lead,  and  copper,  and 
most  of  the  coal  and  salt.  The  larger  part  of  the  numufac- 
tures,  except  in  the  Leeds  and  Birmingham  districts,  are 
produced  near  the  sea  among  these  highlands.  The  whole 
of  England  east  of  the  highlands — that  is,  the  entire  east 
and  south  of  England — is  a  plain  quite  uniform  in  surface 
except  where  diversified  by  low  chalk  or  limestone  hills,  a 
region  of  rich  grass,  wheat,  and  barley. 

Ireland  has  highlands  grouped  along  the  coast,  yielding 
granite,  copj)er  and  other  minerals ;  and  a  large  central 
plain,  with  rich  grasses,  many  lakes,  and  bogs  that  yield 
peat  used  for  fuel.  The  plain  is  a  region  of  grazing  and 
root  crops,  particularly  the  jiotato,  upon  which  the  Irish 
rely  so  largely  for  food  that  the  failure  of  the  crop  in  1846 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AXD  IRELAND 


197 


Fig.  82.— The  railroad  system  radiates  from  London  in  all  directions  to  other  ports 
or  indiii^trial  centers  ;  these  in  turn  are  centers  of  smaller  systems  of  radiating 
lines  ;  so  that  the  country  is  covered  with  a  network  of  railroad.-,  all  lar^'c  towns 
being  connected  with  all  the  others  hy  one  or  more  lines. 

resulted  in  severe  famine.  The  country  is  so  poor  in  coal 
that  its  main  reliance  is  a^ricultuve  and  <rnizing.  Its  man- 
ufactures are  grouped  mainly  on  the  east  coast,  wliere  sup- 
l»lies  of  coal  from  Great  Britain  may  easily  be  obtained. 


198  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

No  country  excels  the  United  Kingdom  in  shipping  facili- 
ties (Fig.  8'-3).  All  mauufacturing  centers  are  within  fifty 
miles  of  a  port.  Most  of  the  best  harbors  of  Great  Britain 
are  on  the  estuaries,  those  of  the  east  coast  harbors  being 
most  favorably  situated  for  trade  with  continental  Eurojie, 
and  those  of  the  west  coast  for  trade  with  America  and  the 
rest  of  the  world. 

The  wearing  away  of  the  soft  rocks  on  the  east  coasf  of 
England  has  Avidened  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Tyne.  Tees, 
Humber,  and  Thames  into  estuaries.  Backed  by  ricii  coal 
measures,  the  Tyne  is  skirted  for  twelve  miles  by  Xewca-: 
and  other  large  towns,  which  export  great  quantities  of  coa 
The  Tees,  near  whose  mouth  is  Hartlejjool,  drains  the 
greatest  iron  region  in  England — the  Cleveland  iron  field. 
Both  these  rivers  render  transport  to  Germany  and  Scandi- 
navia easy  and  cheap.  The  Humber,  flowing  from  the  cen- 
tral manufacturing  districts  through  the  farming  lands  of 
the  east,  gives  Hull  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  products 
and  manufactured  goods,  its  trade  with  the  Baltic  being 
particularly  large.  The  Thames,  the  most  important  river 
in  England,  is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels  to  London, 
the  leading  port  of  the  world ;  it  also  has  the  commercial 
advantage  of  fronting  the  great  continental  ports  of  Amster- 
dam, Eotterdam,  and  Antwerp.  On  the  south  coast,  Dover, 
Folkestone,  and  Newhaven  have  a  large  cross-channel  pas- 
senger and  freight  trade,  while  Southampton,  with  steam- 
ship lines  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  Plymouth,  with  lines 
to  the  Orient,  Australia,  and  America,  are  of  much  greater 
importance  in  international  trade. 

On  the  west  coast,  in  the  estuary  of  the  Severn,  are  the 
harbors  of  Swansea,  Cardiff,  and  Bristol — Swansea  and  Car- 
diff on  a  great  coal  field.  These  ports  have  great  metal 
industries,  owing  to  their  proximity  to  coal  and  iron  and 
the  ease  with  which  iron  ore  is  imported,  particularly  from 
Spain.  Cardiff  exports  more  coal  than  any  other  port  in 
the  world.     Milford  is  the  finest  natural  harbor  in  England, 

h 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND  199 

and  is  nearer  to  Xew  York  than  any  other,  but  it  has  not 
been  developed.  The  estuary  of  tlie  Mersey  is  between  the 
coal  fields  of  Lancashire  and  Wales  and  near  the  manufac- 
turing center  of  England.  This  wealth  of  fuel,  abundant 
industrial  products,  the  miles  of  docks,  and  the  splendid 
steamship  connections  with  Xew  York  have  made  Liverpool 
the  second  greatest  port  in  the  country. 

Glasgow,  the  chief  port  of  Scotland,  has  three  miles  of 
docks  and  an  artificial  harbor,  made  by  deepening  and 
widening  the  river  Clyde.  The  coal  around  it  has  made 
the  city  a  great  manufacturing  center.  Aberdeen  on  the 
Dee,  at  the  opening  of  the  valleys  penetrating  the  moun- 
tains, commands  the  trade  of  north  Scotland.  Dundee  on 
the  Tay  is  so  well  situated  for  trade  with  Baltic  ports  that 
it  has  received  most  of  the  flax  and  hemp  imports  from 
Eussia  and  north  Germany ;  the  jute  trade  also  has  been 
drawn  to  this  port. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  Ireland  is  through  Belfast,  Dublin, 
Waterford,  and  Cork.  Belfast's  large  industrial  importance 
is  due  to  its  position  on  the  Antrim  iron  field  and  its  prox- 
imity to  Scottish  coal.  Cork's  landlocked  harbor  is  on 
the  route  of  transatlantic  steamers.  Limerick  is  most 
important  in  west  Ireland ;  but  the  west  coast  ports,  with 
mainly  a  pastoral  region  behind  them,  do  little  more  than 
a  coasting  trade. 

Agriculture  is  of  subordinate  importance  (Fig.  83).  There 
are  more  merchants  than  farmers,  and  five  times  as  many 


PLOUGHED  LAND 
18.8 


HAY   &    PASTURE  42.7 


UNPRODUCTIVE   34.9 


Fig.  83. — Subdivisions  op  the  soil. 

Most  of  tlie  unproductive  area  is  amoiit;  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.    Hay  and  iiasture 

lands  have  expanded  in  England  at  the  expense  of  tlu;  tilled  Imids. 

workers  in  mines,  factories,  and  sliops  as  there  are  tillers  of 
tlie  soil  (Fig.  84).  'J'lie  farmer  has  great  homo  markets; 
but  he  labors  under  the  disadvantage  of  ]ii<rh  rents  and 


200 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


transportation  charges,  heavy  expense  for  fertilizers,  and 
competition  with  the  cheaper  farm  products  of  America 
and  Australasia ;  still    Great   Britain   produces   more   per 


Fig.  84. — The  most  densely  peopled  regions  are  on  the  coal  fields  and  near  them, 
where  most  of  the  mauufacturin<;  industries  are  situated. 


acre  of  every  staple  food  suited  to  her  soil  and  climate 
than  any  other  counti-y  in  the  world.  As  the  kingdom  has 
a  greater  population,  in  proj^ortion  to  the  cultivable  area, 
than  any  other  nation  of  Europe,  it  is  impossible  to  pro- 
vide the  food  required  without  importations  so  large  that 
the  United  Kingdom,  with  its  40,000,000  people,  is  the 
largest  buyer  of  foreign  foods.  Because  the  United  States, 
Canada,  India,  and  Argentina  raise  cheap  Avheat  and 
send  it  cheaply  across  the  ocean,  the   price   of  wheat   in 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND 


201 


England  has  fallen  half  in  twenty  years,  and  the  profits  of 
Avheat-raisino;  on  British  farms  have  become  so  small  that 


Fio.  85.— The  drier  and  lower  lands  of  the  east  and  sonthcast  of  England  are  the 
chief  wheat-growini,'  area.  Most  of  tlie  barley  is  j^rown  in  thip  wheat  re>.'ion. 
Oats  flourish  better  in  the  eool.  moist  regions  of  the  west  and  north.  Pastures 
and  root  crops  for  stock  raising  cover  large  areas.  Hops  for  beer  "making  are 
grown  mainly  in  the  south  of  p:ngland.  Compare  Fig.  H5  with  Fig.  Wi  to  trace 
the  relations  between  the  distribution  of  the  manufacturing  industries  and  of  the 
coal  fields. 


202  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

the  home  industry  is  constantly  decreasing  (Fig.  85).  The 
imports  have  grown  70  per  cent,  in  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
Three  fifths  of  the  import  wheat  and  flour  come  from  the 
United  States,  a  third  of  it  as  flour  ;  one  fifth  comes  from 
Russia,  and  one  thirteenth  from  Canada.  Oats  holds  the 
first  place  in  acreage,  but  is  also  largely  imported  from  the 
United  States,  Eussia,  and  Canada.  ^laize,  which  is  also  of 
large  importance  in  animal  feeding,  does  not  mature  in  the 
country,  hence  the  entire  supjjly  is  imported  from  our  corn 
belt,  mainly  through  Xew  York  and  Xew  Orleans.  Of 
barley,  a  flourishing  crop  is  supplied  to  the  breweries  and 
distilleries  of  Burton,  Strathmore,  and  other  regions,  but 
large  quantities  are  imported  from  Russia,  Anatolia,  and  the 
United  States.     Rice  is  brought  from  Burma  and  Bengal. 

Domestic  animals  supply  only  a  part  of  the  demand  for 
meat  and  dairy  products.  ]\Iany  millions  of  dollars  are 
expended  every  year  in  the  purchase  of  foreign  meat,  which 
is  brought  in  alive,  or  in  the  form  of  dressed  carcasses,  or  as 
preserved  meat.  The  richest  meadows  are  in  Ireland  and 
west  England,  where  rainfall  is  largest ;  so  the  most  cattle, 
in  proportion  to  area,  are  found  in  these  regions,  though 
they  are  widely  distributed,  being  least  numerous  in  Scot- 
land. In  Ireland,  where  there  are  comparatively  few  large 
towns,  more  attention  is  paid  to  exporting  butter  to  Eng- 
land than  to  selling  milk,  while  England  sells  more  and 
more  milk  and  draws  larger  and  larger  supplies  of  butter, 
mainly  from  Denmark,  but  also  from  Holland,  France, 
and  even  from  Australia  and  Canada.  English  cheeses 
are  among  the  finest  in  the  world,  but  many  are  im- 
ported (p.  186).  Breeds  of  large^' cattle,  raised  ever}'- 
where  for  beef,  are  stall-fed  for  the  market.  Live  cattle 
and  beef  products  come  mainly  frOm  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  Argentina.  Sheep  are  raised  most  exten- 
sively in  the  drier  east,  the  country  being  noted  both  for 
the  variety  of  excellent  wools,  and  also  for  the  superior 
mutton  which  it  produces.     Frozen  mutton,  selling  at  a 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AXD   IRELAND  203 

loTrer  price  than  the  home-grown  article,  is  imported  in 
enormous  quantities  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Argentina.  Hogs,  raised  all  over  the  country,  are  also  in 
insufficient  supi3ly,  and  hams  and  bacon,  from  this  coun- 
try and  to  some  extent  from  Denmark,  are  very  important 
food  supplies.  The  country  is  the  largest  importer  of 
poultry  and  eggs  in  the  world.*  Many  European  countries 
send  ponltry,  even  Italy  contributing  chickens  and  turkeys, 
while  important  supplies  come  from  Canada. 

Many  fishery  products  are  exported  and  few  are  imported 
(Fig.85).  Over  100,000  men  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  indus- 
tries, fish  being  the  only  food  product  yielded  by  the  country 
in  adequate  snpply.  The  sea  fisheries  are  more  valuable 
than  those  of  any  other  country  except  the  United  States 
(p.  92).  They  extend  all  aronnd  the  coasts  and  throughout 
the  North  Sea  (Fig.  51).  All  the  coast  towns  are  fishing 
ports,  but  some  of  them  are  specially  important  (Fig.  82), 
as  Hull,  Yarmouth,  Lowestoft,  Grimsby,  and  Harwich  on  the 
east  coast,  and  Dartmouth  on  the  south  coast,  from  which 
fleets  of  sail  and  steam  trawlers  and  other  fishing  vessels 
are  sent.  Many  of  these  vessels  have  tanks  in  which  the 
fish  are  kept  alive  till  the  vessels  return,  or  the  fish 
are  transferred  to  fast  vessels  which  take  them  to  port, 
whence  tliey  are  distributed  by  special  trains  to  all  the 
large  cities.  Haddock,  cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  are  most 
important ;  trawlers  have  developed  a  large  market  for  the 
sole,  flounder,  and  other  flat  fish.  The  cod  is  sought  on  the 
Dogger  Bank  in  winter  and  on  the  east  side  of  the  North 
Sea  in  summer ;  not  a  few  Bntish  vessels  also  visit  the  cod- 
fishing  grounds  of  Iceland.  Herring  is  the  great  staple  of 
the  Scottish  fisheries,  but  in  winter  the  herring  fislieries 
extend  as  far  south  as  the  English  Channel,  where  also 

*  In  1899,  1,920,000,000  eggs  were  imported.  Most  of  the  siipi)ly 
comes  from  Russia.  Many  Danish  eggs,  exported  tlu-ough  eo-ojicrative 
societies,  are  marked  on  the  shell  with  a  stamp  so  tliat  the  persons 
supplying  them  may  be  identified  if  the  article  is  inferior. 


204  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

mackerel  fisliing  is  very  important.  The  English  fisheries 
being  nearer  to  the  great  markets  than  those  of  Scotland 
are  much  more  valuable  in  the  home  trade.  The  herring 
is  the  great  fish  of  exjiort,  about  110,000,000  worth  a  year 
being  pickled  and  sent  to  the  Greek  and  Koman  Catholic 
countries  of  Europe.  The  home  supply  of  all  kinds  is  so 
abundant  that  the  imports  are  small,  except  canned  and 
frozen  salmon,  and  lobsters  from  Canada ;  oysters  from 
the  United  States'  and  France ;  sardines  from  France  and 
Portugal,  and  anchovies  from  Italy  and  Norway. 

Flax  and  wool  are  the  only  fibers  produced  in  the  country. 
The  cultivation  of  llax  is  mainly  confined  to  the  north  of 
Ireland,  supplying  much  of  the  material  for  the  large  linen 
industries  of  that  island  ;  the  home  supply,  however,  is 
quite  inadequate,  and  about  80,000  tons  a  year  are  imported 
from  the  Baltic  countries,  chiefly  Eussia,  and  20,000  tons 
of  a  finer  quality  from  the  south  of  Belgium  (p.  102).  A 
great  deal  of  wool  is  grown,  but  much  more  is  manufac- 
tured, nearly  .350,000,000  pounds  being  imported  every  year 
to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  main  import  is  from  tlie 
downs  of  Australia,  the  Canterbury  plains  of  Xew  Zealand, 
and  the  semiarid  plains  of  Cape  Colony.  South  African 
wool  is  less  in  demand,  because  the  manufacturer  has  to 
pay  the  cost  of  cleaning ;  for  this  reason,  also,  little  wool  is 
imported  from  Argentina.  Altliough  the  country  does  not 
raise  enough  wool  for  her  own  needs,  large  quantities  are 
sold  to  other  lands. 

Cotton,  hemp,  jute,  silk,  and  some  other  fibers  are  all  of 
foreign  origin.  Great  Britain  consumes  nearly  two  fifth.s  of 
the  world's  supply  of  raw  cotton,  most  of  which  comes  from 
the  United  States  (p.  105).  The  delta  of  the  Xile  also 
sends  much  Egyptian  cotton  from  Alexandria,  the  Deccan 
of  India  from  Bombay,  Cyprus  and  Anatolia  from  Smyrna ; 
and  Brazil,  shipping  from  Eio  de  Janeiro  and  Pernambuco, 
also  sends  important  supplies.  Cotton  is  the  largest  im- 
port except  breadstuffs. 


GREAT    BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND  205 

With  the  growth  of  the  cotton  and  woolen  industries 
silk  manufactures  have  declined  in  imjiortance.  The  silk 
mills,  however,  annually  work  up  about  $10,000,000  worth 
of  raw  and  thrown  silk,  imported  mainly  from  France, 
China,  and  India.  Jute,  shipped  from  Calcutta  to  the 
amount  of  about  350,000  tons,  supplies  the  factories  of 
Dundee,  Scotland,  and  the  neighboring  towns,  which  nearly 
monopolize  the  industry.  Hemp  is  brought  from  Eussia 
and  Germany,  and  a  great  deal  of  cordage  is  made  in  towns 
all  round  the  coasts,  where  the  shipping  is  the  largest 
purchaser. 

Nearly  all  the  timber  is  imported.  The  native  hardwoods 
have  been  so  far  depleted  as  to  count  for  little  in  the  lumber 
supply.*  The  timber  imports  are  exceeded  in  value  only 
by  the  breadstuffs,  meat,  cotton,  and  wool.  Pine  and  other 
building  lumber  are  mainly  imported  from  Xorway,  Sweden, 
Eussia,  Canada,  and  the  United  States ;  Germany  and  Amer- 
ica supply  oak,  walnut,  and  maple.  Mahogany,  mainly  from 
Africa  and  British  Honduras,  is  the  largest  import  of  fur- 
niture woods.  A  great  deal  of  oak  for  wagons  is  imported, 
and  expensive  rosewood  and  other  tropical  hardwoods  for 
cabinet  purposes.  Canada  and  Scandinavia  send  large 
quantities  of  wood  pulp  for  paper  making. 
'"  Coal,  iron  ore,  and  limestone  occur  near  together.  These 
essentials  for  producing  iron  and  driving  machinery  made 
the  kingdom  a  great  manufacturing  nation.  The  country 
mines  all  kinds  of  coal,  sells  about  one  sixth  of  the  output 
to  other  countries,  and  uses  the  rest  for  manufacturing 
and  domestic  purposes.  Each  coal  field  has  special  lines  of 
manufactures  closely  associated  with  it  (Fig.  80).  Iron  ore 
is  turned  into  jiig  iron  from  south  Scotland  to  south  Wales, 
the  largest  center  of  the  trade  being  the  Cleveland  district 

*  ]\IullialI  pivcs  llie  value  of  the  timber  .'inniuilly  foiismiied  in 
Europe,  as  .fOf)  1, 250,000 ;  Unitetl  States,  $-'587,000,000.  This  aulliority 
says  that  j^old  and  timber  are  almost  the  only  articles  that  have  not 
declined  in  value  in  the  past  fifteen  years. 


206 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


(Durham-Xorthumberland  coal  field),  which  produces  3,000,- 
000  tons  of  pig  iron  and  1,250,000  tons  of  steel  a  year.  The 
second  largest  source  of  pig  iron  lies  mainly  between  the 

Cumberland  and  Lan- 
cashire coal  fields,  and 

Fig.  86.— The  Clyde  coal  field 
(1)  is  the  center  of  the  largest 
shipbuilding  in  the  world,  of 
locomotives,  machinery,  and 
all  kinds  of  iron  work,  and  of 
textile  raaniifactures.  Coal  is 
exported  to  St.  Petersburg,  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  facto- 
ries of  Belfast  and  north  Ire- 
land ;  (2)  much  of  the  coal  is 
used  to  smelt  iron  ore  in  Fur- 
ness  and  to  supj)ly  north  Ire- 
land ;  (3)  large  quantities  are 
shipped  to  London  and  to 
many  parts  of  the  world,  and 
also  used  in  the  great  iron  in- 
dustries of  Newcastle,  Sunder- 
land, and  other  cities  ;  (4)  very 
little  exported,  as  nearly  all  is 
consumed  in  the  textile,  ma- 
chinery, and  chemical  works 
of  south  Lancashire,  or  sold 
to  steamers  sailing  from  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  ;  (.5)  sup- 
plies the  woolen  district  of 
Leeds  and  Bradford,  the  iron 
works  of  Sheflield,  the  lace, 
underwear,  and  hosiery  facto- 
ries of  Nottingham,  and  the 
surplus  is  sent  to  London  ;  (6) 
supplies  fuel  for  the  great  cen- 
ter of  iron  manufactures  in 
the  Birmingham  region,  steam 
power  for  the  pottery  district, 

and  sends  much  coal  to  London  ;   (7)  smelts  many  ores,  including  some  that  are 

imported,  as  copper  from  Chile,  and  red  hematite  (steel-making  ore)  from  Spain  ; 

also  exports  coal  through  Cardiff  to  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  (8)  supplies  the  west  of 

England  woolen-manufacturing  centers. 

is  the  only  important  center  of  the  superior  hematite  ores, 
which  are  the  best  for  steel  making.  The  iron  region,  in 
the  Staffordshire  coal  field,  received  the  name  of  the  Black 
Country  owing  to  the  numerous  forges  and  puddling  fur- 


jy^  ^W^  RKTTTSW  I 


^ 


BRITISH  COALFIELDS 


GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND 


207 


naces  in  many  towns  before  steel  superseded  wrought  iron. 
British  ore  is  not  so  rich  in  iron  as  that  of  our  Lake  Supe- 
rior mines  or  those  of  Spain  and  Sweden,  and  the  supply  has 
so  far  diminished  that  large  quantities  are  now  imported, 
mainly  the  black  iron  ore  from  Sweden  and  the  hematite 
of  Spain.  Most  of  these  large  imports  are  smelted  in 
south  Wales,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Bessemer  steel  industry. 
The  growing  expense  of  iron  mining,  the  need  for  large 
imports,  of  "ore,  and  high  freight  charges  in  Great  Britain 
are  among  the  reasons  why  United  States  pig  iron  and 
steel  have  recently  been  sold  in  British  markets  in  com- 
petition with  the  home  products.  The  tin  mines  of  Corn- 
wall and  Devon  are  the  largest  European  sources  of  this 
metal  (Fig.  66),  but  larger  imports 
from  the  Malay  peninsula  are  also 
required.  Little  copper  is  pro- 
duced, but  large  quantities  are 
imported  from  the  United  States, 
Australia,  and  Chile  for  the  elec- 
trical industries.  Enormous  quan- 
tities of  gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc, 
mercury,  and  other  metals  and 
mineralsare  imported.  The  coun- 
try abounds  in  limestone,  sand- 
stone, granite,  and  other  building 
stones,  slate  for  roofing,  clay  for 
brick  making,  and  China  clay  (de- 
cayed granites)  which  is  sent  to  the 
Staffordshire  potteries  (Fig.  87). 

Cotton  spinning  and  weaving 
are  the  largest  industries  (Fig. 
88).  More  than  half  of  the  en- 
tire exports  consist  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  other  textiles. 
About  5,000,000  persons  depend  for  their  livelihood  upon 
tjiesc  industries.  They  are  centered  mainly  in  Lancashire, 
where  the  moist  climate  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  spinning. 


Fir;.  87.— Tlic  lic-!i(lvv!iter!<  of  Mic 
Trent  are  known  as  the  dis- 
trict of  the  potteries.  The 
shaded  areas  show  the  loca- 
tion of  the  clays  from  which 
most  of  the  china  ware  that 
England  exports  in  large  quan- 
tities is  made.  Much  clay  is 
also  sent  from  other  parts  of 
the  country. 


208 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


South  Scotland  produces  chiefly  cotton  thread  at  the  Pais- 
ley works.  Cotton  yarn  and  cloth  are  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  world,  but  chiefly  to  the  warmer  countries  where  light- 
er weights  are  in  demand,  the  value  of  the  exports  being 
more  than  that  of  the  total  woolen,  iron,  and  steel  exports. 
The  cotton  cloth  these  mills  sell  to  other  countries  every 
year  would  extend  ten  times  between  the  earth  and  the 
moon. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  woolen  products  are  consumed  at 
home  (Fig.  88).  Large  quantities  of  fine  English  woolen 
and  worsted  goods,  flannels,  and  blankets  are  sent  to  the 


Fig.  88. — Cotton  and  woolen  distkicts. 
Manchester  is  the  great  cotton  market  and  distributing  center,  but  manufactnres  very 
little.  The  larger  part  of  the  cotton  textile  districts  are  in  south  Lancashire. 
Spinning  cotton  yarn  engages  many  thousands  of  operatives  in  Oldham.  Black- 
burn. Bolton.  Preston.  Burnley,  Rochdale,  and  Stockport.  The  largest  weaving 
centers  are  Preston  and  Burnley,  on  the  north  of  the  Lancashire  coal  field,  the 
finer  goods  being  made  at  Preston  and  coarser  fabrics  at  Burnley.  The  machinery 
nsed  in  the  cotton  mills  is  made  on  the  Lancashire  coal  field  at  Oldham.  Rochdale. 
Bury,  and  Manchester.  Leeds  and  Bradford  are  the  main  centers  of  the  woolen 
trade,  and  with  the  large  towns  near  them  make  most  of  the  woolen  fabrics.  The 
industry  is  largely  specialized.  Leeds  and  Huddersfield  produce  broadcloth  ; 
Halifax,  flannel,  rugs,  and  carpets  :  Bradford,  alpaca,  mohair,  and  woolen 
damasks.  Woolen  machinery  is  made  at  Bradford.  Leeds  and  Barnsley  are 
larsre  producers  of  linen,  drawing  their  fiber  from  the  flax  fields  of  Yorkshire  and 
Russia.  Coventry.  Macclesfield,  and  other  towns  south  of  the  cotton  and  woolen 
districts  are  the  most  important  centers  of  silk  weaving.  Liverpool  and  Manches- 
ter, with  its  ship  canal  (p.  43>.  are  the  ports  of  the  cotton  and  woolen  districts. 

cooler  parts  of  the  world,  mainly  north  Europe,  Xorth 
America,  Australia,  and  Argentina.  Our  high  tariff  on  im- 
ported woolens  has  reduced  the  trade  with  the  United  States. 
A  great  deal  of  Scottish  wool  is  made  into  cheviots  and 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND  209 

tweeds.  Kidderminster  and  Wilton  are  famous  for  carpets 
and  Leicester  for  hosiery.* 

Metal  working  is,  after  textiles,  the  most  important  indus- 
try. Great  Britain  is  conspicuous  for  tlie  quantity,  excel- 
lence, and  cheapness  of  its  metal  manufactures,  but  in 
recent  years  it  has  suffered  from  American  and  German 
competition,  not  a  few  iron  and  steel  products  from  the 
United  States  being  now  sold  even  in  British  markets. 
The  main  center  of  iron  and  steel  manufactures  is  in  south 
Staffordshire,  where  all  kinds  of  metal  goods  are  turned  out, 
from  the  railroad  iron  of  the  Birmingham  district  to  the 
hardware  of  many  small  towns.  On  the  Yorkshire-Derby- 
shire coal  field  the  iron  industries  center  around  Sheffield, 
famous  for  its  cutlery  and  tools ;  here  all  forms  of  iron  and 
steel,  including  machinery,  are  produced.  Leeds,  on  the 
north  edge  of  this  coal  field,  also  produces  many  iron  goods. 
The  great  works  on  the  Durham-Xorthumherland  coal  field 
produce  railroad  plants,  guns,  and  other  articles. 

About  1,000,000  tons  of  pig  iron  are  exported  every  year. 
Railroad  material,  from  rails  to  locomotives,  is  sent  to  many 
countries.  Tin  plate,  a  large_product  of  south  Wales,  has  lost 
much  importance  in  the  export  trade  owing  to  the  develoj)- 
ment  of  the  industry  in  the  United  States  (p.  127).  The 
export  of  metals  and  their  manufactures  to  all  j^arts  of  the 
world  is  nearly  one  fourth  the  total  exports.  No  other 
country  builds  so  many  ships,  in  some  years  more  than 
1,000,000  tons  of  ships,  mostly  steam  vessels,  being  launched 
from  the  great  shipyards  at  Belfast  and  on  the  rivers 
Clyde,  Wear,  Tees,  and  Tyne.  Many  foreign  orders  for 
ships  are  filled  in  British  yards. f 

*  About  half  the  exports  of  the  fine  linen  floods  of  Belfast,  Leeds, 
and  other  centers  are  sent  to  the  United  States.  Tlie  exports  of  silk 
poods  are  much  smaller  than  the  imports,  manufactured  silks  being  the 
only  textile  for  which  Great  Britain  is  dependent  to  a  large  extent  upon 
other  countries.  The  exports  of  jute  piece  goods  from  Dundee  and 
Gl.ns£jow  is  large. 

f  Among  other  important  manufactures  are  the  chemical  indus- 
14 


210  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Railroads  are  the  chief  means  of  internal  transport  (Fig. 
82).  "  Excellent  wagon  roads  connect  the  farms  with  rail- 
road stations.  Though  there  are  many  canals  and  most  of 
the  rivers  have  been  canalized,  the  carriage  of  freight  by 
inland  waterways  is  not  so  prevalent  as  in  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, and  France.  Besides  the  artificial  ship  canal  to 
Manchester  (p.  43),  the  lower  parts  of  the  Thames,  Clyde, 
and  Tyne  may  be  regarded  as  great  ship  canals  leading  to 
ports  some  distance  inland.  They  are  kept  deep  enough  to 
permit  the  passage  of  the  largest  vessels.  The  coast  trade 
between  the  various  ports  is  very  important. 

A  large  part  of  the  world's  trade  is  carried  in  British  ves- 
sels (p.  48).  The  country  is  connected  by  steamships  with 
all  the  important  ports  of  other  lands.  The  tonnage  in  the 
foreign  trade  entering  and  clearing  at  British  ports  every 
year  is  about  90,000,000  tons,  of  which  only  one  ninth  is 
sailing  vessels.  Seven  out  of  every  ten  vessels  entering  the 
ports  fly  the  British  flag.  Her  pre-eminence  on  the  sea 
adds  much  to  the  wealth  of  Great  Britain,  for  it  enables  her 
to  be  a  large  freight  and  passenger  carrier  for  other  lands, 
and  most  of  all  for  the  United  States.  Three  fifths  of  the 
British  ocean  trade,  according  to  value,  centers  in  London 
and  Liverpool,  where  many  docks  have  been  built  to  accom- 
modate sea  commerce  (Fig.  89). 

tries,  producing  aniline  dyes,  sulphuric  acid,  glass,  soap,  and  other 
articles.  The  leather  industries  employ  nearly  500,000  persons.  Shoe- 
making  is  a  great  industry  in  Staffordshire,  Leicestershire,  and  London. 
The  country-imports  large  quantities  of  leather  and  hides;  leather  and 
its  manufactures,  particularly  boots,  shoes,  and  saddlery,  are  sent 
abroad  in  large  quantities.  The  manufacture  of  paper,  with  its  prin- 
cipal centers  in  Maidstone,  Manchester,  and  Bath,  is  noted  for  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  product,  but  the  demand  is  so  great  that 
much  more  paper  is  imported  than  exported.  Beer  is  brewed  most 
largely  in  London,  Edinburgh.  Dublin,  and  at  Burton-on-Trent.  whose 
neighboring  hop  fields  and  suitable  water  has  made  it  celebrated  for 
its  product,  which  is  exported  to  many  parts  of  the  world.  Scotland 
and  Ireland  produce  most  of  the  whisky. 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND 


211 


Most  of  the  imports  are  foodstuffs  and  materials  for  manu- 
facture ;  most  of  the  exports  are  manufactures.  One  half  of 
the  British  imports  come  from  the  colonies  and  the  United 
States.  Britons  have  become  so  dependent  upon  other 
people  for  foodstuffs  that  more  than  one  third  of  all  they 
buy  abroad  is  food.  In  1899  they  spent 
r  foreign  food,  raw  materials,  and 
manufactures  I5G.76  jc^er  capifa,whic\i 
more  per  head  of  the  pop- 
lation  than  the  United  States, 
France,  and  Germany  spent 
ether.  The  cotton, 
foodstuffs,  and  other 
things  this  country 
sells  to  Great  Brit- 
ain are  one  fourth 
of  her  total  pur- 
chases. No  other 
countries  are  so 
closely  bound  to- 
gether by  the  mag- 
nitude of  their 
commercial  rela- 
tions. Enghuid 
has  a  large  trade 
in  goods  imported 
for  re-exportation 
— a  very  })rofita])le 
business  for  ship- 
owners. 

Great  Britain 
has  a  larger  part  in  the  world's  trade  than  any  other  nation. 
It  is  the  greatest  market  for  food  supplies  and  raw  man- 
ufacturing materials  sold  by  other  countries.  It  is  the 
largest  source  of  manufactured  commodities  bought  by 
other  countries.     Its  bills  for  food  and  raw  materials  are 


Fig.  89. — Most  of  the  London  docks  surround  water 
basins  connected  by  channels  with  tlie  Thames.  In- 
coming vessels  are  moored  at  tlie  import  doclvs  on 
which  their  cargoes  are  unloaded  ;  they  then  receive 
cari,'oes  from  the  export  docl<8  on  the  other  side  of 
them.  Trains  and  trucks  move  down  the  middle  of 
the  docks,  unloading  e.xjxirt  freight  on  one  side  of 
the  tracks  and  loading  w  ith  imports  on  tlie  other. 


212  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

constantly  increasing,  and  it  must  pay  for  its  enormous 
purchases  with  the  products  of  its  mills.  Because  most  of 
the  things  it  buys  are  the  necessities  of  life  (food)  and  the 
necessities  of  industries  (raw  materials)  it  is  a  free-trade 
country,  less  than  a  score  of  articles  being  subject  to 
duties.  The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Great  Brit- 
ain is  larger  than  with  all  the  rest  of  the  world,  being  57 
per  cent  of  our  total  foreign  commerce ;  33  per  cent  of 
Great  Britain's  foreign  trade  is  with  this  country. 

Great  Britain  long  held  the  highest  rank  among  indus- 
trial nations.  It  is  now  surpassed,  in  value  of  manufac- 
tures produced,  only  by  the  United  States.  The  United 
Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France  acquired  great 
industrial  ascendancy  after  steam  power  was  applied  to 
manufacturing,  because  they  mined  most  of  the  coal  and 
iron,  controlled  good  and  cheap  labor,  and  were  most 
favorably  situated  in  respect  of  large  capital  and  facilities 
for  transportation  and  commerce.  The  United  States, 
having  acquired  similar  advantages,  now  competes  with 
the  older  industrial  centers  in  the  purchase  of  raw  mate- 
rials and  the  value  of  its  industrial  products. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE   UNITED   KINGDOM 

Mean  Annual  Value,  1896-'98,  of  Leading  Imports 

(in  Million  Dollars) 


Grain  and  flour 265.4 

Cotton,  raw 171.0 

Wool 121.4 

Dead  meat 136.8 

Sugar,  raw  and  refined  ....  85.9 

Butter  and  margarine 91 .0 

Wood  and  timber 108. 9 

Silk  manufactures 83 . 7 

Flax,  hemp,  and  jute 45.3 

Tea 52.3 

Wool  manufactures  and  yarn  57. 3 

Animals  (for  food) 53.7 

Oils 40.7 

Chemicals,  dyestuffs,  etc.. . .  30.4 


Seeds 30.8 

Fruits  and  hops 36.5 

Eggs 21.7 

Coffee 18.1 

Tobacco 20.5 

Currants  and  raisins 9.5 

Leather,  dressed  hides,  etc.. .  38.4 

Wine 31.7 

Cheese 26.3 

Copper  ore  and  manufactures  29.6 
Iron  ore  and  manufactures.  .  53.6 

Lead 10.7 

Tin 8.8 

Zinc  and  manufactures 8.7 


GREAT   BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND 


213 


Mean  Annual  Value,  1896-'98,  of  Leading  Exports  of  Home 
Produce  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Cotton  manufactures 330.4 

Woolen  and  worsted  manu- 
factures     105 . 1 

Linen  manufactures 28.5 

Jute  manufactures 12.9 

Apparel  and  haberdasliery. .     32.3 


Iron  and  steel 118.7 

Hardware  and  cutlery 10.4 

Copper 13.1 

Machinery 86 . 1 

Coal,  etc." 83.2 

Chemicals 42.2 


Foreign  Trade  in  1898  (in  Million  Dollars)  * 


United  States. 

France 

India 


Im- 
ports. 

630.3 

257. 0 

137.3 


Ex- 
ports. 

73.6 

68.5 

148.6 


Australasia 144.3  105.6 

Germany 142.7  112.6 

Holland 142.7  43.1 

Belgium 107.7  44.0 

British  North  America  103.8  30.8 

Russia 97.5  46.1 

South  and  East  Africa  30 . 9  62 . 3 

Spain 65.9  14.2 

Denmark 58.5  16.7 

Sweden  48.7  20.0 

Argentina 38.9  27.9 

Egypt 44.3  22.1 

Turkey 24.4  30.6 

Brazil 23.0  31.0 

Italy 16.7  28.2 

Norway 24.9  12.2 


Im- 

Ex- 

ports. 

ports. 

China 

13.3 

5.8 

25.2 

Japan 

24.6 

Portugal 

17.2 

7.6 

Chile 

18.2 

12.9 

5.7 

8.5 

Rumania 

6.7 

Austria-Hungary. . 

8.4 

Greece 

7.2 
2.0 

5.7 

Java 

9.6 

Peru 

7.7 

4.0 

Philippine  Islands. 

7.5 

1.0 

Mexico 

1.3 
5.9 

8.8 

Central  America  . . 

2.8 

Ecuador 

1.3 

1.6 

Total  British  pos- 

sessions   

497.2 

417.1 

Total      foreign 

countries 

1,854.7 

749.7 

Grand  total. .  2,351.91,166.8 


The  monetary  standard  is  gold,  with  the  pound  sterling 
(value  $4.8Gf)  as  the  unit  of  coinage.  Mo^t  weights  and 
measures  as  in  the  United  States.  Cwt.  (hundredweight) 
=  113  pounds;  quartern 8.253  bushels;  quarter  (coal  in 
London)=36  bushels;  stone=14  pounds. 

*  These  tables  give  special  trade  only.  Special  trade  is  tlie  import 
of  articles  for  home  consumption  and  exports  of  native  raw  or  manu- 
factured [iroducts.  General  trade  includes  the  total  trade,  or  in  other 
words,  both  the  special  and  the  forwarding  trade.  Most  statistics  in 
tills  book  are  of  the  special  trade. 


CHAPTEE   XX 

GERMANY 

No  other  country  is  in  such  close  touch  with  so  many  great 
commercial  nations.  Germany  is  the  most  central  country 
of  Europe,  adjoining  Eussia  on  the  east,  Austria-Hungary 
and  Switzerland  on  the  south,  France,  Belgium,  and  the 
Netherlands  on  the  west,  and  Denmark  on  the  north,  while 
the  British  markets  are  accessible  by  a  day's  journey  from 
German  ports  on  the  N^orth  Sea.  The  soutl^ern  half  is 
highland,  and  the  northern  half  low  plain,  the  country 
sloping  toward  the  north.  In  the  extreme  south  are  the 
Alps  and  the  high  plateaus  of  the  Alpine  foreland,  witli  the 
least  genial  climate  and  tlie  smallest  variety  of  vegetation. 
Between  the  Danube  and  south  Prussia  are  the  Central 
High  Plains,  the  most  fertile  part  of  Germany  except  the 
Ehine  and  some  other  valleys.  Xearly  all  of  Prussia,  half 
of  the  empire,  is  a  sandy  plain  made  highly  productive 
only  by  the  most  scientific  agriculture. 

The  continental  climate  prevails  in  the  east,  where  the 
average  temperature,  therefore,  is  considerably  lower  tlian 
in  the  west.  The  westerly  winds  from  the  Atlantic  (Fig.  8) 
give  western  Germany  a  mild  climate  in  winter,  while  un- 
broken frost  prevails  in  the  east.  South  Germany  derives 
no  climatic  advantage  from  its  more  southerly  position  on 
account  of  its  high  elevation.  The  rainfall  is  everywhere 
abundant. 

The  North  Sea  and  Baltic  Sea  coasts  extend  for  1,200 
miles  (Fig.  90).  The  coast  waters  are  shallow,  and  tliere  are 
few  harbors  except  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  some  dis- 
214 


GERMANY 


215 


tance  inland,  where  the  river  currents  have  worn  deep 
channels.  Hamburg  is  the  third  largest  port  in  the  world 
(Fig.  91),  being  surpassed  only  by  London  and  Xew  York. 
With  a  movement  of  14,000,000  tons  a  year,  it  is  the  lead- 


FiG.  90.— The  Rhine,  Weser,  Elbe,  Oder,  and  Vistula  (Weichsel),  all  with  large  pea- 
ports  at  or  near  their  mouths,  carry  on  steamboilts  an  enomjous  amount  of  com- 
merce derived  not  only  from  their  valleys,  but  also  from  many  canalized  tributa- 
ries and  canals.  The  most  western  and  the  largest  commerce  carrier  is  the  Rhine, 
which  neither  begins  nor  ends  in  Germany.  Observe  that  the  parts  of  these  rivers 
navigable  for  large  boats  extend  entirely  across  the  empire  or  far  into  it.  The 
North  Sea  ports  are  open  all  the  year  round,  but  the  Baltic  jiorts  are  frozen  over 
in  winter :  Llibeck  and  Stettin,  however,  are  kept  open  by  ice  breakers.  C'u.v- 
haven  is  the  outport  of  Hamburg  and  Bremerhaven  of  Bremen.  Kiel  and  Wil- 
helmshaven  are  naval  ports.  The  population  is  most  dense  on  the  coal  and  iron 
fields,  where  industries  are  most  active,  and  in  the  fertile  Rhine  valley,  which  is 
crowded  with  manufacturing  towns.  It  is  least  den.se  in  the  low-lying  agricul- 
tural and  stock-raising  regions  of  Prussia  and  in  some  of  the  mountain  districts. 


ing  port  of  continental  Europe.  At  high  tide  the  largest 
vessels  ascend  the  Elbe  sixty  miles  to  tlie  port,  where 
freight  is  transferred  from  steamsliips  to  Elbe  boats  that 
carry  it  nearly  to  Prague  in  Bohemia  (Fig.  90).  Ham- 
burg handles  nearly  one  half  of  the  exterior  commerce. 


21  r> 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Bremen,  fifty  miles  up  the  Weser,  is  the  nearest  port  to  the 
Atlantic,  but  on  account  of  the  shallow  approach  much  of 
its  business  is  done  at  Bremerhaven.  Hamburg  and  Bremen 
gained  their  sujjremacy  on  account  of  their  position  in  front 
of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  Avhich,  before  the  building  of 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  (Fig.  25),  intercepted  entrance 


Fig.  91.— Tue  fkee  port  of  Hamburg. 
Two  thousand  five  htiiulred  acres  of  land  and  water  in  the  harbor  form  the  free  port. 
Free  ports  serve  in  part  the  same  purpose  that  our  bonded  warehouses  do.  Goods 
may  be  sent  to  bonded  warehouses  and  forwarded  later  in  bond  to  their  destina- 
tion in  a  foreign  country  without  paying  duties.  In  the  same  way  goods  sent  to 
the  free  ports  of  Germany  and  Denmark  do  not  come  under  the  supervision  of  the 
customs  laws.  But  if  they  are  taken  from  the  fr-ee  port  for  consumption  in  the 
country  to  which  the  free  port  belongs,  they  must  pay  duties.  The  free  ports  are 
Hamburg.  Bremen.  Cu.xhaven,  and  Danzig  iu  Germany,  and  Copenhagen  in  Den- 
mark. Hamburg's  navigation  and  the  industrial  activity  of  its  suburb,  Altona, 
are  closely  reluted. 

into  the  Baltic  and  made  these  river  ports  the  natural  place 
for  unloading  merchandise  consigned  to  German  ports  from 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Stettin,  on  the  Oder,  the  nearest 
port  to  Berlin,  has  good  water  communications  nearly  to 
the  Austrian  frontier.* 


*  Danzig  and  Konigsberg  are  large  outlets  for  the  cereals  of  north- 
east Prussia,  and  import  much  tea  from  Russia.  Liibeck  receives  a 
great  deal  of  petroleum  from  Russia,  lumber  and  grain  from  Russia 


GERMANY  2lY 

German  rivers  and  canals  have  large  economic  importance 

(Fig.  90).  The  length  of  waterways  in  France  is  greater 
than  in  Germany,  bufa  double  the  tonnage  is  transported 
by  boat  in  the  latter  country.  At  many  points  along  the 
rivers  and  canals,  manufactured  products  of  neighboring 
mills  are  shipped  to  sea  ports,  and  large  quantities  of  for- 
eign goods  are  distributed  through  the  interior  by  river 
vessels  and  canal  boats.  The  fleets  of  the  Elbe  and  the 
rivers  and  canals  tributary  to  it,  for  instance,  nourish  both 
Hamburg  commerce  and  the  interior  industries.  Xearly 
one  half  of  the  Elbe  traffic  toward  Hamburg  is  sugar. 
Heavy  wooden  boats  have  been  replaced  on  the  canals 
by  steel  lighters  of  large  tonnage  and  small  draught.  All 
the  large  rivers  are  connected  with  one  another,  and  also 
with  the  water  systems  of  France,  Belgium,  and  the  jSTeth- 
erlands,  by  canals,  so  that  freight  on  tlie  Vistula,  for  ex- 
ample, may  be  carried  by  internal  waterways  to  Paris, 
Antwerp,  and  Eotterdam.  The  Danube  has  through  trade 
with  Xorth  Germany  by  means  of  the  Ludwig  Canal,  con- 
necting it  with  the  Main-Rhine. 

Less  than  half  of  the  population  live  on  the  farms.     Sev- 
enty years  ago  four  fifths  of  the  inhabitants  were  farmers. 


UNPRODUCTIVE.^ 


ARABLE  LAND  48.4 

HAY  AND  PASTURE 
20.3 

FOREST  25.  7 

Pig.  92. — Subdivisions  op  the  soil  in  Germany. 

Few  countries  so  fully  utilize  the  resources  of  the  soil  as  Germany.    The  small  area 

of  unproductive  lands  is  mainly  marsh  and  the  highest  elevations. 

but  Germany  has  become  more  a  manufacturing  than  an 
agricultural  country.  All  avaihible  land  is  used  for  tillage 
and  pasture  (Fig.  92),  but,  like  Great  Britain,  the  country 

and  Scandinavia,  and  sends  inaniifacluros  to  tlie  same  countries.  Stet- 
tin hrinf^s  in  large  quantities  of  t,n-ain  and  timber  from  north  Russia, 
ami  herring  from  the  north  Euro|)ean  fi.sheries.  Its  largest  export  is 
sugar. 


218 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


can  not  raise  tlie  foodstuffs  required.  'The  best  soil  and 
climate  for  farming  purposes  are  in  the  Rhine  valley.  Rye, 
the  most  important  grain,  because  so  large  a  part  of  the 
people  eat  rye  bread,  and  potatoes,  the  largest  food  resource 
of  the  peasantry,  are  grown  all  over  the  sandy  plain.  Ger- 
many raises  more  potatoes  than  any  other  country,  and  has 


■■^-y''      ''^^i.J^"\: 


I    ^.1  Wine 

to?^  Tobacco 

mm  Hops 

^^^^'Flax 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

Fig.  93. 

a  small  surplus  for  export.  The  rye  harvest  is  twice  as 
large  as  the  wheat  crop  ;  most  of  the  wheat  and  barley  are 
raised  on  the  highlands  of  the  southwest.  Oats  is  a  very 
large  crop  in  most  parts  of  the  empire.  The  warm,  sunny 
climate  of  the  southwest  is  particularly  favorable  for  wine, 
hops,  and  tobacco  *   (Fig.  93).     One  eighth  of  the  bread- 


*  The  light  wines  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle,  which  flows  into  the 
Rhine  at  Koblenz,  are  celebrated,  but  the  exports  are  small  compared 
with  the  imports,  chiefly  from  Prance.  Tobacco  growing  is  important, 
but  the  country,  consuming  about  four  pounds  per  capita  a  year,  im- 


GERMANY  219 

stuffs  is  imported,  Russia  supplying  most  of  the  rye,  while 
Eussia,  Rumania,  and  Argentina  compete  with  the  United 
States  in  furnishing  wheat  and  flour.  Over  $50,000,000 
a  year  is  expended  for  these  supplies. 

About  one  fourth  of  the  world's  sugar  is  German  beet  sugar 
(Fig.  94).  The  sugar  beet  is  the  largest  industrial  staple 
of  the  empire.  The  industry  is  encouraged  by  sugar  boun- 
ties. As  the  Germans  are  small  consumers  (using  only  one 
third  as  much  sugar  per  ccqnta  as  the  people  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States)  more  than  half  the  crop, 
refined  or  raw,  is  exported.  A  considerable  amount  of  the 
raw  product  is  refined  in  the  United  States.  The  sugar 
beet  and  potato  are  sold  largely  to  distillers  in  the  north- 
east of  Germany  for  the  manufacture  of  spirits. 

Pasturage  is  scattered  all  over  the  country  (Fig.  94). 
Only  Russia  has  a  larger  number  of  cattle.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  dairy  products  are  exported.  As  a  moist  climate 
and  wet  soil  favor  the  growth  of  grass,  cattle  and  horse 
raising  is  the  leading  industry  in  Schleswig-Holstein  and 
on  the  marshy  lands  of  the  North  Sea  coast.  The  high 
plains  of  the  southwest  also  are  rich  in  meadows,  and  raise 
fine  cattle.  The  best  saddle  horses  come  from  northeast 
Prussia ;  the  industry  is  specially  encouraged  by  the  Gov- 
ernment on  account  of  its  need  for  cavalry  horses.  Sheep 
have  greatly  decreased  (nearly  0,000,000  in  ten  years)  owing 
to  the  decline  in  the  price  of  wool  and  the  conversion  of 
pastures  into  plowed  lands  to  raise  food  for  the  rapidly 
growing  industrial  towns.*     Very  large  wool  imports  (about 

ports  from  the  Unitpd  States  far  more  thaii  it  raises.  Tlie  liops  of 
Bavaria,  of  superior  quality,  have  |;^iven  Bavariau  heer  its  lii;,di  repute. 
Flax  and  hemp  are  large  imports  from  Russia,  as  the  home  supply  for 
linen  and  cordage  is  insufficient. 

*  The  finest  wool  raised  in  Saxony  and  Silesia  is  manufactured  in 
the  mills  at  Chemnitz,  Gorlitz,  Breslau,  and  other  wool  centers.  Jjarge 
flocks  are  now  found  only  <m  the  big  landed  estates  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Prussia. 


220 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


$30,000,000  a  year)  come  principally  from  the  Eio  de  la 
Plata  countries,  Australia,  and  Cape  Colony.  Many  hogs  are 
fattened  in  the  oak  and  beech  forests  of  the  south.     The 


Fig.  94. — The  larger  part  of  the  beet  crop  is  grown  on  the  phiinR  ofTnissia  and  in  the 
basin  of  the  Rhine.  As  most  sugar  is  made  wliere  most  beets  are  gro\ni,  the  larg- 
est centers  of  the  industry  are  in  the  lowlands  around  the  Harz  Mountains  and  in 
southeast  Prussia  (Silesia). 

The  coal  fields  are  near  large  navigable  rivers,  and  their  j)roduct  thus  has  the 
advantage  of  cheap  water  transportation.  The  coal  of  the  Rhine  lies  in  the  val- 
leys of  its  tributaries,  the  Ruhr  and  the  Saar.  The  coal  of  the  Elbe  is  mined  both 
in  the  kinL'dom  and  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony.  The  coal  of  the  Oder  is 
fouud  in  Silesia.  Great  quantities  of  lignite  (intermediate  betweeu  peat  and  coal) 
are  also  mined  for  use  mainly  in  sugar  refineries  and  distilleries. 


famous  Westphalian  hams  come  fiom  the  grain  lands  of 
north  Westphalia,  where  hogs  are  bred  so  as  to  make  the 
meat  tender  and  least  fat.  The  imports  of  meat  are  from 
$10,000,000  to  -120,000,000  a  year.  Tlie  United  States  sup- 
plies about  half  of  it,  mainly  hog  products,  Holland  and 


GERMANY  221 

Denmark  providing  most  of  the  remainder.  Tlie  Xorth 
Sea  and  Baltic  fisheries  employ  thousands  of  men,  though 
the  industry  is  inferior  to  that  of  France.  Many  coast 
towns  are  engaged  in  fish  curing. 

Forests  cover  a  fourth  of  the  area  (Fig.  92).  Beech,  oak, 
walnut,  pine,  spruce,  and  birch  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant varieties.  The  nortliern  plains  are  poor  in  timber,  but 
the  highlands  of  the  south  are  rich  in  this  resource.  In 
some  parts  of  Bavaria  the  wood  industries  are  almost  the 
sole  resource  of  the  people ;  wooden  toy  making  is  a  great 
industry  in  Nuremburg  and  in  scores  of  snuiller  towns ; 
large  quantities  of  timber  are  floated  down  the  rivers  for 
lumber  making.  The  state  governments  maintain  strict, 
supervision  over  the  forest  industries.  Xo  one  may  destroy 
a  tree  without  planting  another ;  thus  the  gathering  of  a 
crop  of  timber  goes  hand  in  hand  with  raising  another  crop. 
Considerable  lumber  is  imported,  chiefly  from  the  Baltic 
countries  and  the  United  States,  our  contributions  being 
mainly  pitch  pine,  oak  staves  for  beer  and  wine  casks,  and 
black  walnut  for  furniture.  The  fruits  of  the  cooler  coun- 
tries are  raised,  but  many  apples  are  imported  from  the 
United  States. 

Coal  and  iron  are  near  together  (Fig.  94).  The  German 
output  of  tliese  minerals  is  far  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
country  of  Europe,  excepting  Great  Britain  (Figs.  58  and 
61).  The  Ruhr  coal  field  is  the  richest  in  Europe ;  on  it 
are  grouped  the  largest  metal- working  industries  of  the 
empire.  Some  iron  is  obtained  on  the  field,  but  more  is 
brought  from  the  neighboring  Ilarz  Mountains  or  is  cheaply 
brought  down  the  Moselle  to  the  Rhine  from  the  vast 
sources  of  iron  ore  in  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Luxem])urg. 
The  coal  of  AValdenburg  and  Upper  Silesia,  second  in 
importance,  supplies  Berlin  and  many  other  industrial 
cities  with  fuel  and  is  also  used  in  smelting  the  iron  ore  of 
Silesia.  The  coal  of  Saxony  borders  the  Erzgebirge  (ore 
mountains),  wliich  sui)j)]y  only  a  small  part  of  the  ii'on 


222  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

consumed  in  the  Saxon  metal  industries.  About  two 
thirds  of  the  iron  comes  from  the  api^arently  inexhaustible 
mines  of  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Luxemburg ;  considerable 
quantities  of  the  superior  steel  ores  of  Spain  and  Sweden,, 
and  also  American  pig  iron,  are  imported.  The  low  cost  for 
transport  of  coal,  ore,  and  metal  products  is  a  great  advan- 
tage. The  steel  made  on  the  Euhr  coal  field  is  hauled  to 
the  wharves  at  Antwerp,  150  miles,  for  82  cents  a  ton. 

Five  sixths  of  the  zinc  comes  from  Upper  Silesia  (Konigs- 
hiitte),  the  world's  largest  source  of  zinc.  Germany  mines 
a  great  deal  of  copper,  and  more  silver  than  any  other  coun- 
try in  Europe,  both  metals  coming  from  the  Erz  and  Harz 
Mountains.  A  vast  supply  of  salt  is  mined  on  the  north 
German  plain.  The  world's  chief  source  of  lithographic 
stone  is  Solnhofen  in  Bavaria. 

Germany  holds  the  third  place  among  manufacturing 
nations.  She  is  surpassed  in  this  respect  only  by  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Manufactures,  employ- 
ing a  third  of  the  people,  have  the  advantage  of  a  home 
market  protected  by  high  duties,  the  best  technical  skill, 
cheap  transportation,  disciplined  labor,  and  great  success 
in  creating  foreign  markets. 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  manufactures  are  most  important. 
They  employ  more  men  and  turn  out  a  larger  value  of 
product  than  any  other  industry.  Tbe  largest  centers  are 
on  the  coal  fields  of  the  Euhr  and  Saxony ;  in  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, which  uses  the  coal  of  the  Saar  to  smelt'its  iron  ore ; 
and  in  Thuringia  and  Bavaria,  which  bring  coal  to  their 
iron  mines.  Iron  and  steel  are  also  sent  to  many  machine 
shops,  far  from  the  coal  fields,  for  conversion  into  a  great 
variety  of  articles.  The  wonderful  development  of  the 
Ehine- Westphalia  industrial  region  (Euhr  coal  field.  Fig. 
95)  has  done  much  to  make  the  economic  greatness  of  Ger- 
many. Though  the  country  makes  most  of  its  machinery, 
its  imports  from  the  L'^nited  States  and  Great  Britain  are 
important.     Thirty-five  years  ago  Germany  bought  all  its 


GERMANY 


223 


locomotives  in  Belgium  and  England,  but  to-day  its  loco- 
motives, made  in  Berlin,  Chemnitz,  Miilhausen,  and  other 


I>DISTRIAL  KM.IO>. 

S'^AUE  OF  M  LES 

0  10  lo    51 

Predominating  Mi  till  Induat 
Predominating  Textile  Induniriea 
Chief  Centra  of  Coat  Mining. 

7^|30^ 


Fig.  95.— At  Essen  are  the  Krupp  iron  and  steel  works,  the  largest  in  the  world, 
employing  over  40,000  men  and  producing  cast  steel,  railroad  iron,  cannon,  and 
many  other  articles.  Many  of  the  towns  on  this  map  hw\'e  now  ten  times  their 
population  of  fifty  years  ago,  owing  to  the  concentration  in  them  of  metal  indus- 
tries. Renisclieid  and  Solingen  are  renowned  for  side  arms  and  cutlery.  Iserlohn 
is  famous  for  its  needle  factories  ;  many  other  towns  have  their  special  products. 
Dortmund  is  a  great  shipping  point  for  coal.  Duisburg  is  the  shipping  point  for 
coal  on  Rhine  boats. 

The  double  city  of  Barmen-Elberfeld,  known  as  "  the  Gennan  Manchester,"  is 
one  of  the  largest  cotton-manufacturing  centers  of  Europe.  The  region  between 
Krefeld  and  Neuss  is  the  center  of  the  Gennan  silk  and  ribbon  industry,  and  Kre- 
feld  has  properly  been  called  "the  German  Lyons";  its  trade  has  recently  lan- 
guished owing  to  the  decline  of  exports  to  the  United  States. 

cities,  are  sold  in  many  countries.     Russia  is  the  largest 
buyer  of  German  machines. 

Textile  products  are  second  in  importance.  Fibers  are 
imported  in  large  quantities,  and,  next  to  (ireat  Britain, 
Germany  is  our  best  customer  for  raw  cotton,  which  is  tlie 
leading  textile  product.     Cotton  is  distributed  from  Rhine 


/ 


224 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


boats  to  spinning  and  weaving  centers  along  the  river  from 
Elberfeld,  Cologne,  and  Diisseldorf  (Rhineland-Westpha- 
lia,  Fig.  95)  to  Miilhansen  (Alsace,  Fig.  96),  the  great  cot- 


NORTH 
SEA 


H    U  N    G    A    R    T 

BAItBOADS  IS  GERMAM 

1:  13,500,000 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


Fig.  96.— Berlin  is  the  center  of  the  fine  railroad  system,  which  extends  to  the  most 
remote  parts  of  the  empire.  Freight  is  carried  at  cheap  rates,  and  thus  the  rail" 
roads  have  had  a  large  part  in  industrial  development.  The  three  classes  of  rail- 
roads are  (1)  the  imperial  railroads,  such  as  those  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  owned  and 
managed  by  the  imperial  government :  (2)  the  state  railroads,  controlled  by  Pnis- 
sia.  Saxony,  Bavaria,  aiid  other  states  ;  and  (3)  private  railroads,  owned  by  incor- 
porated companies  like  those  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  The  state 
roads  are  most  important,  and  those  of  Prussia  include  about  one  half  of  the 
mileage  of  the  empire. 

ton  center  of  south  Germany.  The  third  cotton  group  is 
in  Saxony  (Fig.  94),  with  Chemnitz  and  Zwickau  as  the 
most  active  centers.  German  cottons  are  exported  all  over 
the  world,  with  Central  and  South  America  as  the  largest 
purchasers. 

The   woolen   mills   are  mainly  centered  at   Chemnitz, 
Liegnitz,  and  Gurlitz,  near  the  fine  wools  of  Saxony  and 


GERMANY  225 

Silesia,  aud  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  the  Rhine  province,  which 
receives  a  great  deal  of  foreign  wool.  Chemnitz  is  famous 
for  its  hosiery,  underwear,  and  sliawls ;  while  the  output 
of  woolens  is  not  so  valuable  as  that  of  cottons,  the  exports 
are  larger.  All  the  great  trading  nations,  as  well  as  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  countries,  are  large  purchasers.  Bielefeld, 
in  west  Prussia,  and  Ilirschberg,  in  Silesia,  are  the  most 
important  centers  of  the  linen  industry.  The  silk  industry 
is  mostly  confined  to  the  Krefeld  district  (Fig.  95).  Much 
jute  is  imported  from  Bengal  for  manufacture  into  various 
fabrics. 

Germany  ranks  next  to  Great  Britain  in  shipbuilding. 
Its  ocean  vessels  visit  all  points  of  the  world,  and  carry 
most  of  the  German  trade  (p.  48).  The  shipyards  at  Stet- 
tin, Hamburg,  Danzig,  and  Kiel  turn  out  many  vessels, 
some  of  them  among  the  largest  and  swiftest  afloat,  though 
twenty-five  years  ago  the  country  depended  chiefly  upon 
British  shipyards  for  its  merchant  marine.* 
[^  Railroads  are  numerous  and  freights  are  cheap  (Fig.  96). 
Railroad  and  water  transportation  sujiplement,  instead  of 
rivaling,  one  another.     Witliout  this  splendid  development 

*  Chemical  industries  have  their  higliest  development  in  Germany  ; 
hirge  quantities  of  aniline  dyes  and  otlier  chomicid  pix'parations  are 
exported,  most  of  them  to  the  United  States.  The  inaking  of  leather 
and  leather  goods  employs  600,000  [)ersons ;  there  are  large  imports  of 
hides  from  America  and  India. 

Germany  strikingly  illustrates  the  fact  that  the  location  of  indus- 
tries is  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  proximity  of  the  raw  prod- 
ucts rcfjuired.  Thus  distilleries  are  most  numerous  near  the  rye  and 
potato  fields  of  north  Germany ;  beer  brewing,  an  enormous  industry, 
is  most  important  in  the  hop  and  l)arley  lands  of  Bavaria;  lumber, 
wood  carving,  and  wooden  toy  making,  among  the  forests  of  tlie  south  ; 
cheese  making,  in  south  Bavaria,  Scthleswig-IIolstcin  and  along  the 
lower  rthinc,  rich  in  cattle;  potteries,  near  the  clay  deposits  at  I\Ieiss(!n, 
where  "Dresden  ware"  is  produced;  al.s(j  in  the  Thuringian  Wakl,  and 
other  places;  and  glass  works,  in  the  mountain  I'egions  of  Bavaria 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  Iliesengebirge  in  Silesia. 
15 


2-^0  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

of  highways  the  present  industrial  success  could  not  have 
been  achieved.  Tlie  main  and  branch  railroads  are  most 
numerous  in  the  iron  and  textile  regions  of  Ehineland- 
Westphalia,  Saxony,  and  Silesia.  The  great  cities  are  the 
meeting  points  of  lines  coming  from  all  directions.* 

Germany  exports  manufactured  articles  and  imports  food 
and  raw  materials.  Its  foreign  trade  is  over  $2,000,000,000 
a  year,  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  States.  Its 
largest  trade  is  with  the  United  Kingdom ;  the  United 
States  holds  the  second  place,  followed  by  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Russia,  and  France.  No  machinery  is  bought  unless 
it  is  better  in  quality  or  cheaper  in  price  than  can  be  pro- 
duced at  home ;  thus  the  imports  of  metal  goods  and 
machinery  are  comparatively  small  as  compared  with  ex- 

*  Berlin,  the  capital,  tlie  largest  city  and  the  center  of  inland  com- 
merce, is  engaged  in  all  branches  of  industry,  and  is  one  of  the  leading 
money  markets  of  the  world  ;  Elbing  is  the  most  eastern  manufacturing 
city  of  large  impiortanec ;  Poscn  has  distilling  and  brewing  interests 
and  machine  sho])s;  at  IJreslau  the  industrial  products  of  the  west  are 
exchanged  for  the  raw  products  of  the  east ;  Dresden,  with  manifold 
industries,  is  especially  noted  for  artistic  furniture,  metal  products, 
nuichinery,  and  jiaper;  Leipzig,  one  of  the  largest  commercial  cities,  is 
the  center  of  the  book  and  fur  trades ;  Magdeburg,  Brunswick,  and 
Hanover,  in  the  largest  sugar-beet  region,  are  the  chief  centers  of  sugar 
refining,  and  have  large  textile  and  other  interests;  Kassel  is  a  large 
trading  point,  where  the  railroads  from  the  North  Sea  ports  meet  tliose 
from  Dresden  and  southwest  Germany ;  Frankfort  on  the  Main  is  one 
of  the  chief  money  centers  of  Europe;  Nuremberg,  at  the  convergence 
of  several  valleys,  is  a  railroad  center  of  south  Gernuxny  and  the  chief 
manufacturing  city  of  Bavaria;  Munich,  leading  the  country  in  beer 
production,  is  the  largest  grain  market  in  the  south ;  Augsburg  has 
cotton  mills,  and  is,  after  Munich,  the  chief  commercial  center  of 
Bavaria:  Stuttgart  has  large  numufactiires.and  is  the  main  center  of 
south  German  trade;  Strassbiirg  has  iron,  machinery,  and  leather 
maiuifaetures;  Mannheim,  at  the  head  of  steamer  navigation  on  the 
Rhine,  im[)orts  grain  and  cotton  from  America,  coal  from  the  lower 
Rhine,  and  exports  south  German  products;  Cologne,  the  chief  Rliinc 
city,  the  central  point  of  Rhine  navigation,  is  famous  for  the  manu- 
facture of  eau  de  Cologne. 


I 


GERMANY  227 

ports.  The  total  exports  arc  about  three  fourths  as  large 
as  the  imports.  The  commodities  it  buys  from  the  United 
States  are  worth  over  twice  as  much  as  those  it  sells  to  this 
country.  It  takes  from  our  cotton  states  every  year 
140,000,000  worth  of  raw  cotton,  and  also  purchases  enor- 
mous quantities  of  maize,  wlieat,  oats,  meats,  copper,  petro- 
leum, lumber,  and  oil  cake.  The  trade  policy  is  that  of 
protection.  The  Zollverein  (Customs  League)  applying  to 
Germany  and  Luxemburg,  covers  the  whole  empire  except 
the  free  ports. 

Germany  has  become  a  great  commercial  country  since 
the  war  with  France  in  1870-71.  One  eli'ect  of  that 
struggle  was  to  consolidate  the  rival  German  states  into  an 
empire,  resulting  in  a  fusion  not  only  of  political  but  also 
of  economic  interests.  The  new  nation  has  advanced  with 
wonderful  rapidity  in  industrial  development  and  in  sea- 
carrying  capacity,  rivaling  all  other  traders,  in  every  market, 
by  the  excellence  and  cheapness  of  its  manufactures. 

STATISTICS   FOR  GERMANY 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1872-75.  1881-"85.  ISOl-'OS.  I'M). 

Imports 985.0  785.0         1,064.5         J,;J88.8 

Exports 623.5  790.0  800.5         1,084.3 

Trade  with  Principal  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dcm.lars) 

E.\-  Im-  E.X- 

ports.  ports,  ports. 

89.8  I'.fl-^imn 58.5  49.3 

203.(5  NethL'rlaiids 48. ;J  77.9 

110.9  Italy 46.8  37.6 

104.0  Argentina     .    46.3  13.4 

51.7  Switzerland 41.9  67.7 


Im- 

ports. 

I ■  lilted  Stales 

215.9 

Great  |{ritain 

184.9 

Aiislria-llinii^ary. .  . 

17;i.8 

Russisi 

107.0 

l^^rance  and  Ali^^cu'i; 

73.1 

Gold  standard,  with  tlie  mark  (value  2;31t  cents)  as  the 
unit  of  ('oiuage.     Metric  weights  and  measures. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

FRANCE 

France  fronts  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean 

(Fig.  1).  The  large  ports  of  Enghmd  are  only  a  few  hours' 
sail  from  the  northern  shores  of  the  country;  the  Xorth 
Sea  gives  speedy  access  to  all  north  Europe ;  the  Atlantic 
"routes  to  South  American  and  African  ports  are  shorter 
than  those  of  England,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands; 
and  the  Mediterranean  gives  superior  facilities  for  trade 
with  north  Africa,  the  Levant,  and  all  Eastern  countries. 
Only  Spain,  among  European  lands,  shares  with  France  the 
advantage  of  being  bordered  by  two  great  commercial  seas. 

Half  the  country  is  lowland  and  half  is  highland.  A 
line,  530  miles  long,  drawn  from  Bayonne  in  the  southwest 
to  the  Ardeimes  in  the  northeast  (Fig.  97)  roughly  divides 
the  rolling  plains  west  of  it,  which  are  less  than  GOO  feet 
above  sea  level,  from  the  highlands  to  the  east;  Most  of 
the  mineral  and  metal  industries  are  in  the  highlands  ; 
most  of  the  general  manufactures  are  scattered  over  the 
plain.  Tlie  climate  is  temperate,  the  warm,  moist  winds 
from  the  west  bringing  abundant  rain. 

There  are  few  good  harbors.  A  large  part  of  the  coast 
line  is  un})roken  l)y  important  inlets ;  most  of  the  harbors, 
therefore,  are  river  ports  like  Havre,  Eouen,  Xantes,  and 
Bordeaux,  or  artificial  harbors  like  Cherbourg,  which,  by 
costly  breakwaters,  has  been  made  one  of  the  finest  arti- 
ficial harbors  in  the  world.  The  most  important  harbors 
are  Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  and  Dunkirk. 
228 


230  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPnY 

Marseilles  is  the  leading  port  (Fig.  97).  With  a  move- 
ment of  8,000,000  tons  :i  year,  it  controls  the  French  trade 
with  Mediterranean  countries  and  the  Orient,  is  the  inlet 
for  the  grain  of  the  Black  Sea  and  Algeria,  and,  as  the 
port  of  Lyons,  receives  raw  silk  from  the  far  East.  Xo 
other  port  rivals  Marseilles  in  the  quantities  of  olive,  palm, 
ground  nut,  cotton  seed,  and  other  vegetable  oils  or  oil- 
seeds brought  in  ;  it  is  also  one  of  the  largest  coffee  mar- 
kets of  tlie  world.  The  commerce  of  Marseilles  naturally 
shapes  tlie  city's  leading  industries,  such  as  soap  and  oil 
factories,  flour  mills,  and  sugar  refineries. 

Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the  second  port. 
It  is  strictly  a  forwarding  port,  in  other  words,  nearly  all 
it  receives  is  sent  inland  or  to  sea,  very  little  being  retained, 
as  the  city  produces  little  except  machinery  and  sliips. 
Raw  products  have  the  first  place  in  its  imports  (Fig.  97) ; 
as  the  port  of  Paris  and  of  the  great  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts of  the  north,  its  exports  include  many  articles  of 
novelty  and  luxury,  as  well  as  wares  for  ordinary  use.  Its 
movement  is  4,000,000  tons  ;  its  most  important  traffic,  out- 
side of  European  ports,  being  with  America.* 

France  is  less  favored  with  navigable  waters  than  Ger- 
many. The  Seine  is  the  most  important  river  (Fig.  98).  It 
is  navigable  by  river  boats  beyond  Paris.  The  Loire  and 
Gironde  are  subject  to  great  variation  in  level;  the  lower 

*  Bordeaux,  on  tlie  Gironde,  has  tlio  disadvantage  of  a  shallow- 
approach.  It  is  the  chief  wine  port,  being  near  the  red-wine  district  ot 
Bordeaux,  which  supplies  more  exports  than  any  other  region.  Dun- 
kirk (uioveracnt  1,800,000  tons)  is  favorably  situated  for  bringing  in  raw 
materials  for  the  great  manufacturing  towns  of  the  north  ;  its  imjiorls 
are  eight  times  as  large  as  its  exports.  Rouen  formerly  depended  upon 
Havre  as  its  port,  but  the  deepening  of  the  Seine  has  made  the  city 
important  for  grain,  cotton,  and  other  imports.  Nantes  and  St.  Nazairo 
are  ports  of  less  importa,nce.  Cette  imports  wine  to  mix  wit  li  Frencii 
vintages.  Clierbourg  and  Brest  are  n.aval  stations.  Calais,  Boulogne, 
and  Dieppe  trader  with  North  Sea  ports,  but  are  mainly  im])orlant  in 
the  passenger  trade  witii  England. 


FRANC R 


231 


Rhone  is  scarcely  navigable,  though  the  Saone  and  Donbs, 
its  upper  tributaries,  carry  much  commerce.  Nevertheless 
the  coal,  lumber,  agricultural  products,  and  other  heavy 


C. 


f*^    FRANCE 

!nt<^rior  Navigation 


^flead  of  Itiver  Naidgrttum 


Uajoane 

s 


>       \J^"  NarlwiimJ 


Fn;.  98.— ( )bscrvi;  tlie  canals  connecting  caslorn  and  western  river  systems,  tluis  pro- 
viding water  higliways  across  France  to  Relgiiim  and  Germany  ;  tlic  watiTways 
from  St.  Male  and  Brest  to  the  Loire  and  from  the  (Jiroiule  to  lli<'  Meiliterranean. 


freight  carried  on  the  rivers  and  canals  amount  to  inauy 
million  toiis  a  year.  Half  the  coal  used  in  Paris  is  brouglit 
by  Avatcr  ;  the  water  carriage  to  and  from  that  city  exfceds 
the  tonnage  of  Marseilles.  A  quarter  of  Franco's  internal 
trade  is  carried  on  the  waterways. 

Agriculture  is  the  greatest  industry  (Fig.  00).  II. ill'  of 
the  ;>0,()()(),()00  inhabitants  earn  their  living  on  farms.  'J'lu'r(^ 
are  as  many  farms  in  France  as  in  the  United  (States  (over 


232  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

5,000,000),  and,  as  France  is  smaller  than  Texas,  the  farms 
are  small,  averaging  only  fifteen  to  seventeen  acres  each.* 


ARABLE  LAND  52.4 


HAY  AND 

PASTURE 

11.3 


FOREST  IS.  3 


UNPRODUCTIVE 


Fig.  90.— Subilivi.sions  of  the  soil  in  France. 

As  the  people  prefer  wheat  bread,  the  consumption  of 
rye  per  capita  is  far  less  than  in  Germany  and  Enssia.f 
Bread  and  cheap  wine  are  the  food  and  drink  of  the  masses^ 
meat  being  too  expensive  for  daily  use.  The  result  is  that 
grain  fields  cover  one  fourth  of  France,  and  wheat  is  worth 
more  than  all  the  other  cereals  together  (Fig.  100).  Though 
France  is  one  of  the  largest  wheat-growing  countries  (Fig. 
3G),  the  demand  exceeds  the  supply;  about  33,000,000 
bushels  are  purchased  every  year  from  America  and  Russia. 
Little  flour  is  ini2)orted,  as  mills  grind  wheat  in  many 
cities. J 

Oats  is  the  second  most  important  cereal.  Rye  and 
barley  are  raised  on  the  2:)oorer  soils  of  the  coast  and  among 
the  highlands ;  maize,  requiring  more  heat  than  wheat, 
grows  only  in  the  soi;th.  All  cereals  are  imported  in  large 
quantities ;  little  is  exported  except  wheat  flour  and  alimen- 
tary pastes. 

The  sugar  beet  is  the  most  important  industrial  plant 
(Fig.  100).     It  is  grown  exclusively  on  the  rich  plains  of 

*  The  land  is  also  divided  among  small  owners  in  other  countries  of 
Europe,  except  in  Great  Britain,  Hungary,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Russia, 
where  large  estates  predominate. 

f  In  1860  rye  Viread  was  the  staple  food  of  the  peasantry,  who  soon 
after  began  to  discard  rye  for  wheat.  The  wheat-eaters  of  the  world 
were  estimated  at  371.000,000  in  1871  and  516,000,000  in  1898.  Every 
great  railroad  opened  adds  to  the  number  of  wheat-eaters. 

X  The  manufacture  from  wheat  flour  of  alimentary  pastes,  such  as 
macaroni,  vermicelli,  etc..  which  oi-iginated  in  Italy,  is  now  a  constantly 
glowing  industry  also  in  France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  some 
other  countries.  The  French  output  is  about  170,000,000  pounds  per 
year. 


FRANCE 


233 


the  extreme  north,  where  about  500  factories,  working 
night  and  day,  make  the  raw  sngar  that  is  sent  to  the 
refineries  of  Paris,  Lille,  Marseilles,  Bordeaux,  Nantes,  and 
Havre  (Fig.  44).  Many  small  distilleries  on  farms  also  use 
the  beet  in  the  production  of  alcohol.  A  great  deal  of 
sugar  is  exported,  particularly  to  the  United  Kingdom. 

Tobacco  (Fig.  100)  is  raised  in  but  twenty-five  depart- 
ments, as  the  Government  forbids  its  cultivation  in  all  dis- 


H-Uoraea 
C-CallU 
Ug-Hoga 
ulli'i-        /  SLSA   -p 

T      .      P  JSu  &ujar  beet 

K'K,         "1  "!' 
^^^      TT  tncco 

I  Ills,    v  .e^ 


^^    a 


'4  *^ 


Fig.  100/— Agriculture  and  animal  raising. 

tricts  which  fall  below  a  certain  quantity.  The  Ciovorn- 
ment  has  a  monopoly  of  the  production,  manufacture,  and 
sale  of  tobacco,  oVer  $60,000,000  being  annually  added  to 
the  state  revenue^  from  this  source.* 

*  Tlifi  result  isTRTtt-tabaoco  is  nowliero  so  expensive  as  in  France; 
,ill  coiiiitries  of  nortli  Europe  largely  exceed  France  in  per  capi/a  con- 
sunijition.  The  Government  nlso  nionoiuilizes  llie  niainifncture  and  sale 
of  matches,  which  yield  a  profit  to  the  state  of  over  $5,000,000  a  year. 


234 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Hops,  grown  chiefly  in  the  north  and  east,  supply  the 
brewing  industry,  which  is  most  active  there.  Flax  and 
hemp  cover  a  large  area,  but  the  imports  from  Belgium 
and  Russia  are  large.  Among  vegetables,  the  potato  is 
most  valuable,  the  crop  being  about  half  as  large  as  that  of 
Germany. 

France  is  the  greatest  wine-growing  country  (Fig.  101). 
Wine  is  the  national  beverage  (p.  69) ;  over  1,700,000,000 


Fig.  101.— Wine  and  pishehies. 

Till'  shaded  nrcnn  are  the  wine-growing  regions.     The  le.ading  fislicry  ports  are  sliown 

l)y  dots  of  various  sizes,  according  to  relative  inii)ortanco. 


gallons  were  produced  in  1000.  The  climate  and  soil  gave 
France  supremacy  in  this  industry  till  the  phylloxera 
(]882-'92)  ravaged  the  vines  and  reduced  the  crop  below 
that  of  Italy.  By  graftitig  upon  stock  imported  from 
America,  France  has  overcome  this  terrible  pest  and  re- 
suuicd    the   first  place  in  production.     Wine  is  imported 


FRANCE  235 

from  south  European  countries  and  Algeria  to  mix  with 
the  cheap  wines  of  France.  The  exports  are  mainly  cham- 
pagne and  the  red  and  white  wines  of  other  districts,  the 
two  greatest  centers  of  export  wines  being  Champagne  and 
Bordeaux.  Exports  and  imports  are  each  about  $50,000,- 
000  a  year.  Exports  are  sent  to  all  north  European  coun- 
tries, America,  and  the  Orient.  England,  which  produces 
no  wine,  is  by  far  the  largest  foreign  consumer  of  cliam- 
pagne.  Enormous  quantities  of  cider  in  the  northwest 
and  beer  in  the  northeast  are  also  manufactured  ;  Charente 
is  the  great  brandy-producing  district. 

Cattle  breeding  is  the  most  important  animal  industry 
(Fig.  100).  Cattle  graze  in  grassy  meadows  all  over  the 
great  plain,  the  industry  being  particularly  active  near 
large  markets  for  beef  and  dairy  products.  The  northwest 
produces  the  best  butter,  sending  large  quantities  to  Lon- 
don and  Paris.  Normandy  is  at  the  head  of  cheese  mak- 
ing;  Camembert  and  Noufcliatel,  among  Normandy's 
cheeses,  are  well  known  in  foreign  markets,  also  Brie,  a 
product  of  the  northeast.  The  famous  Roquefort,  made  in 
south  France  of  ewes'  milk,  is  cured  in  deep  rock  collars 
by  methods  handed  down  through  many  generations. 

Breton,  Percheron,  and  Flemish  horses  are  well-known 
draft  varieties.  Nearly  all  tlie  horses  are  rais'ed  north  of 
the  Cironde,  while  mule-raising  is  a  large  industry  hv- 
tween  the  Loire  and  the  Pyrenees. 

Sheep  (Fig.  100)  producing  superior  wool  and  other 
breeds  highly  esteemed  for  mutton  have  decreased,  owing 
largely  to  the  widening  of  plowed  lands  at  the  expense  of 
pasturage ;  as  a  result,  great  quantities  of  wool  are  imported 
from  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  countries  and  Australia  to  mix 
with  home  wools.  The  best  donicstic  i]])or  is  reserved  for 
tlie  finest  [jrodiu^ts  of  I'^rciieh  looms. 

Compared  with  otlier  leading  iiatious  of  Euro])e, 
France  has  small  exten\al  trade  in  animals  ;ind  their 
products,  except  in  the  import  ol"  r.iw  wdol   and   silk   and 


23r)  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  export  of  their  manufactures  and  of  poultry  and  eggs. 
Enormous  quantities  of  eggs  are  sent  abroad,  mainly  to 
England. 

France  has  high  rank  among  flshiii^  countries  (p.  0-2). 
This  is  due  mainly  to  the  extent  of  the  cod  fisheries  and 
the  assiduous  cultivation  of  the  oyster.  Fig.  101  shows 
the  nature  of  the  sea  fisheries  and  the  leading  fishing 
ports.  The  Atlantic  fisheries  are  chiefly  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Gironde ;  numerous  oyster  beds  are  planted 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  east  of  St.  Malo  in  the  English 
Channel.  French  oysters,  inferior  to  the  American  prod- 
uct, are  eaten  in  France  only  on  the  half  shell.  Canned 
.sardines  are  sent  all  over  the  world;  fish,  too,  are  eaten 
extensively  in  the  country,  which,  being  Roman  Catholic, 
abstains  from  flesh  many  days  in  the  year,  requiring  a  large 
and  constant  supply  of  fish.  French  rivers,  wliich  had  be- 
come almost  destitute  of  fish,  have  been  stocked  with  much 
American  fry. 

Erance  is  deficient  in  building  timbers.  Wood  is  the 
principal  fuel  for  domestic  purposes,  but  there  is  not 
enough  of  the  kinds  of  timber  required  for  buildings  and 
furniture  ;  ever-increasing  quantities  of  lumber  from  north 
Europe  and  of  cabinet  woods  from  the  tropics  are  im- 
ported. 

France  is  one  of  the  large  producers  of  coal  (Ilg.  58). 
Her  production,  however,  both  of  coal  and  iron  is  small 
compared  with  that  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Germany.  A  third  of  the  coal  used  is  imported  from 
England,  Belgium,  and  Germany.  Three  fifths  of  the 
home  supply  is  taken  from  the  French-Belgian  field  in  the 
extreme  north  (Fig.  97).  The  sheep  districts  of  the  north- 
east and  the  wool  imported  at  Dunkirk  make  this  region — 
from  Eoubaix,  near  Lille,  to  Eeims — the  great  center  of  the 
woolen  industry.  Here  also  are  large  iron  and  machinery 
industries,  but  the  iron  must  be  brought  to  the  coal  from 
Belgium,  Luxenibxirg,  Germany,  and  Spain.     The  second 


FRANCE  237 

largest  sources  of  coal  are  the  areas  around  Le  Creuzot  and 
St.  Etienne,  the  only  regions  in  France  where  coal  and  iron 
are  found  together.  Many  smaller  coal  mines  in  the  west 
and  center  nourish  the  industries  around  them. 

The  richest  deposits  of  iron  are  near  the  German  frontier, 
south  of  the  Ardennes.  Particularly  around  Chavigny  and 
neighboring  Nancy  nine  tenths  of  the  iron  ore  produced  in 
France  is  raised.  Most  of  the  iron  and  steel  is  made  in  the 
regions  around  Lille,  Nancy,  and  Le  Creuzot  (Figs.  61  and 
G5).  St.  Etienne  is  noted  for  its  superior  steel.  The  cost 
of  transport  being  high,  manufacturers  who  are  compelled 
to  bring  coal  from  a  distance  are  at  a  disadvantage. 

The  richest  salt  mines  (rock  salt)  are  near  Nancy ;  two 
thirds  of  the  salt  is  obtained,  however,  from  salt  marshes 
along  the  flat  coasts  from  the  Loire  to  the  Gironde  and 
from  Cet^e_to  Marseilles. 

France  excels  in  the  quality  of  her  manufactures.  In 
quantity  she  is  far  surpassed  by  the  United  States,  (ireat- 
Britain,  and  Germany.  While  factories  and  sliops  are  scat-^ 
tered  all  over  the  country,  the  principal  industrial  centers- 
are  situated  in  the  north,  in  tlio  southeast  and  in  the. 
Paris  district  (Fig.  07). 

The  most  numerous  iron  and  steel  works  are  on  the  rich 
coal  field  of  the  north  (Fig.  07).  Fives  and  other  suburbs  of 
Lille  produce  locomotives  and  much  machinery.  Most  of 
the  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  steel  are  produced  at  Fives- 
Lille,  around  Nancy,  and  at  Lc  Creuzot,  the  latter  being 
the  seat  of  the  largest  metallurgic  industries  of  Franco, 
rivaling  Essen  in  Germany  and  Seraing  in  Belgium.  A 
large  part  of  the  rails  and  locomotives  used  on  French  rail- 
roads and  numy  cannon  come  from  its  rolling  mills,  shops, 
and  foundries.  Maj'seilles'  great  importance  in  iron  and 
steel  working  is  due  to  the  ease  with  which  she  gets  coal 
by  water  from  St.  Etienne  and  iron  ore  from  Algeria  and 
Sardinia.  The  cast  iron  aud  steel  of  Bordeaux  and  otluT 
towns  in  the  southwest  are  made  nuiinly  fr(nn  Spanish  ore. 


238  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Few  metal  goods  are  imported ;   the  exports  are  not  one 
third  as  great  as  those  of  woolens  or  silks.* 

Textiles  employing  over  1,000,000  persons  have  the  first 
place.  They  are  mainly  found  near  the  coal  fields  or  sources 
of  raw  material,  and  the  most  distinctive  of  them  is  the 
silk  industry.  Silkworm  culture,  carried  on  since  the 
fourteenth  century  in  southern  France  where  the  mulberry 
thrives,  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  the  Ehone  valley ;  it  has 
greatly  declined,  owing  to  the  silkworm  disease  and  the 
competition  of  raw  silk  from  China,  Japan,  Italy,  and 
Turkey,  so  that  French  silk  mills  now  import  nine  tenths 
of  the  raw  silk  they  consume.  5  Lyons  is  the  greatest  silk 
market  and  the  largest  producer  of  silk  broad  goods  in 
Europe  (Fig.  97),  but  numy  other  cities  are  noted  for  silk 
products — as  St.  Etienne  for  ribbons,  Avignon,  near  the 
Rhone  delta,  for  light  fabrics.  Tours,  for  hosiery,  and 
Paris,  for  gauzes  and  tulles.  France  once  controlled  the 
world's  silk  markets,  but  in  recent  years  the  large  develop- 
ment of  the  industry  in  the  United  States,  Germany,  and 
Great  Britain  has  offered  such  serious  competition  that 
French  exports  have  declined. 


*  Leather  working  is  a  great  industry,  esjieciuUy  wlicre  tlie  most 
cattle  are  raised.  All  the  large  cities  have  immense  shoe  factories, 
turning  out  $100,000,000  worth  of  shoes  every  year,  many  of  the  finest 
kinds.  About  a  sixth  of  the  output  is  exported  to  the  Orient  and 
South  America.  Goat  skins  sent  from  north  Africa  and  the  Levant 
are  turned  into  morocco  leather  ;  kid  and  other  gloves,  among  the  best 
made,  are  sent  everywhere ;  perfumery,  made  chiefly  in  Paiis  and  its 
environs,  is  widely  demanded  ;  the  manufacture  of  glassware  is  a  not- 
able industry,  and  the  cut  glass  of  Baccarat  is  known  in  all  markets. 
France  is  distinguished  for  the  good  taste,  elegance,  and  finish  of  her 
goldsmitliery,  bronzes,  and  other  artistic  work,  but  other  nations  are 
trying,  not  without  considerable  success,  to  compete  with  her  in  this 
field.  Paris  is  a  center  of  goldsmithery  and  diamond  cutting;  the  art 
pottery  made  at  Sevres,  near  Paris,  excels  in  design  and  decoration;  a 
large  part  of  the  finest  porcehiin  of  France  is  sold  abroad,  Tjiinoges.  for 
example,  sending  to  the  United  States  two  thirds  of  its  best  china  ware. 


FRANCE  230 

The  largest  cotton-manufacturing  city  is  Eonen,  in  the 
]S,'ormandy  cotton  group ;  the  next  most  important  region 
is  in  the  north,  with  Lille  and  the  neighboring  cities  of 
Koubaix  and  Tourcoing  as  the  principal  centers.  The 
eastern  group,  a  little  northwest  of  Lyons,  is  third  in 
importance.  Less  than  one  per  cent  of  the  output  is 
exported,  most  of  the  exports  going  to  the  French  colonies. 
Two  thirds  of  the  raw  cotton  comes  from  the  United  States 
through  Havre,  and  the  balance  from  Egypt,  India,  Tur- 
key, and  Brazil,  mainly  through  Marseilles. 

The  finest  of  wool  fibers  have  long  been  produced  by 
crossing  French  sheep  with  the  Spanisli  merino.  France, 
however,  produces  scarcely  a  fourth  of  tlie  wool  she  manu- 
factures. The  great  center  of  the  industry  is  in  the 
north,  where  Eoubaix,  Tourcoing,  and  other  towns  near 
Lille  make  one  third  of  the  woolen  cloths  (Fig.  97). 
Paris,  Eeims,  and  Lyons  make  shawls.  France  spins  most 
of  her  woolen  yarns,  while  Germany  imports  large  quanti- 
ties for  her  mills.  Woolens  are  usually  the  largest  of  all 
exports,  French  woolen  cloths  everywhere  holding  their 
own  against  competition. 

Linen  is  made  chiefly  at  Lille,  Eoubaix,  and  in  numy 
other  towns  of  the  north  where  it  is  most  convenient  to 
import  flax  from  Belgium  and  Eussia.  The  expoj-ts  are 
small.  Nearly  300,000  persons  are  emi)loye(l  in  various 
cities  making  laces  which  are  famous  in  all  markets. 
Point  d'Aleuyon  is  the  only  Frenc^h  lace  worked  exclusively 
with  tlie  needle. 

Railroads  doing  the  most  business  converge  at  Paris. 
Tliis  city,  which  is  both  the  capital  ami  the  luiart  of 
France,  leads  the  country  in  comiuerce  and  politics,  and 
influences  the  whole  world  in  matters  of  taste,  luxury,  and 
fashion.  Eailroads  having  the  largest  traffic  are  those 
from  the  chief  seaports  to  the  capital,  bringing  Paris  into 
toucli  with  steamship  lines  plying  from  Marscilh'S  to  Me- 
diterranean   ports,  Australia,  and    the  Orient;    I'rojii    l>or- 


240  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

deaux  to  AVest  Africa  and  South  America ;  from  St.  Nazaire 
to  Vera  Cruz  and  Colon ;  from  Havre  to  Xew  York  and 
New  Orleans ;  and  from  all  ports  to  other  European  coun- 
tries.* 

The  merchant  marine  is  the  smallest  among  the  four 
leading  nations  (p.  48),  carrying  only  a  third  of  the  deep- 
sea  trade.  Vessels  unloading  large  cargoes  at  French 
ports  sometimes  find  it  difficult  to  get  full  return  loads. 

The  principal  imports  are  food  and  raw  materials ;  the 
largest  exports  are  manufactured  articles.  France  imports 
a  great  deal  more  than  she  exports.  Most  of  her  foreign 
purchases  are  hulky  and  heavy  commodities,  such  as  coal 
from  England,  lumber  from  Scandinavia,  and  cereals  from 
the  United  States.  Most  of  her  foreign  sales  weigh  little 
and  are  so  high  in  price  that  they  do  not  compete  with 
plainer  goods  of  the  same  varieties ;  among  these  goods 
are  fine  and  costly  textiles  and  innumerable  novelties  and 
artistic  products  known  in  the  trade  as  articles  de  Paris. 
The  agricultural  specialties — wine,  sugar,  and  cheese — 
greatly  swell  the  exports.  Great  Britain  has  the  first  place 
in  the  foreign  trade,  but  the  imports  from  the  United 
States,  mainly  cotton,  cereals,  petroleum,  and  meats,  almost 
equal  in  value  the  coal,  metals,  foodstuffs,  and  manufac- 
tures which  France  buys  from  Great  Britain.  France  sells 
little  more  to  the  United  States  than  she  does  to  Algeria, 
because,  first,  we  now  make  at  home  many  things  formerly 
purchased  in  French  markets ;  and  second,  the  high  tariff 
which  this  country  imposes  on  silk  and  woolen  goods  and 

*  An  enormous  amount  of  foreign  merchandise,  worth  over  $150,- 
000,000  a  year,  is  carried  across  France  on  its  way  to  other  countries. 
Most  of  this  freight  originates,  according  to  value,  in  Switzerhmd, 
Germany,  Belgium,  Italy,  Mexico,  England,  and  Sjmin,  in  the  order 
named.  Most  of  it  is  destined,  according  to  value,  for  England,  the 
United  States,  Switzerland,  Spain,  Argentina,  and  Italy.  It  is  very 
profitable  for  any  nation  to  be  a  large  freight  carrier  for  other  coun- 
tries. 


BELGIUM 


243 


imported  from  the  United  States  and  other  wheat  coun- 
tries.    The  sugar  beet  grows  in  quantities  to  allow  a  large 


export  of  sugar.     Flax  of  a  supt-rior  (|nality  is  grown  in  the 
Valley  of  the   Lys,  whose  waters,  free  from  lime  salts,  are 


244  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

particularly  valuable  for  retting.  Hemp  and  colza  are 
largely  grown  in  Flanders.  Colza  is  rape,  which  is  raised 
for  its  oily  seed.  Oats  is  a  large  croj)  in  the  Ardennes 
hills,  and  barley,  hay,  and  pasturage  thrive  in   the   low 


ARABLE  LAND  49.1 
.       .    _ 

HAY  AND  PASTURE  26 

FOREST  16.6 

tNPRODuC- 

Fig.  103. — Subdivisions  op  the  soil  in  Belgium. 
Wheat  fields  occapy  a  quarter  of  the  arable  lands. 

coastal  belt.  The  potato  is  almost  as  much  used  for  food 
as  wheat,  and  in  no  part  of  Europe  is  larger  sj^ace  given 
near  the  great  cities  to  market  gardening  and  to  the  rais- 
ing of  flowers. 

Herds  are  pastured  in  most  jxirts  of  the  country,  the 
best  grazing  regions  for  cattle  being  in  the  Campine,  a 
sandy  region  now  restored  to  fertility  by  irrigation.  Here 
the  finest  butter  in  Belgium  is  made.  Sheep  thrive  best  in 
the  drier  eastern  and  southeastern  purt  of  the  country, 
where,  though  there  are  only  about  400,000  of  them,  wool 
manufactures  are  most  developed. 

Poultry  is  raised  throughout  Belgium,  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  eggs  and  young  fowls  are  exported  to  England  and 
to  the  cities  of  northern  France.  Flanders  and  Brabant 
(the  pi'ovince  of  which  Brussels  is  the  capital)  are  famous 
for  horses.  They  make  a  specialty  of  breeding  fine  draft 
horses,  mostly  Flemish  and  Norman,  which  sell  at  high 
prices.  Liege  is  the  principal  horse  market,  and  the  Mon- 
day sales  are  often  attended  by  buyers  from  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  Still  the  imports  of  horses  are  larger 
than  the  exports,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  importation 
from  England  of  horses  for  slaughter,  Belgium  being  one 
of  the  countries  in  which  considerable  horse  meat  is  eaten. 
Some  thousands  of  draft  horses  are  usually  sent  to  Belgium 
every  year  from  the  United  States. 

Agriculture  is  of  subordinate  importance  as  compared  with 
mining  and  manufacturing  (Fig.  104).     Belgium's  mineral 


BELGIUM  245 

resources  have  made  her  a  large  industrial  country.  Over 
20,000,000  tons  of  coal  a  year  are  mined  in  the  rich  fields 
that  stretch  across  the  country  from  France  to  Germany. 
About  three  fourths  of  the  coal  is  consumed  at  home,  and 
the  rest  is  exported  mainly  to  France,  Avhere  it  sells  at 
about  one  fourth  higher  prices  than  in  Belgium.  Fortu- 
nately, iron  is  also  found  in  the  coal  fields  of  the  Meuse 
Eiver,  especially  around  Xamur  and  Liege  ;  but  the  produc- 
tion— about  1,000,000  tons  a  year — is  insufficient  for  the 
industries  of  the  country.  About  twice  as  much  iron  as 
Belgium  produces  is  annually  imjiorted,  most  of  it  from  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg. 

Xear  Moresnet,  on  the  eastern  edge  of  Belgium,  are 
some  of  the  richest  zinc  mines  in  Europe,  yielding  annually 
about  90,000  tons,  a  great  deal  of  which  is  exported.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  copper  and  lead  are  produced  near 
Verviers  and  Liege.  Limestone,  sandstone,  and  slate  quar- 
ries, in  the  central  and  southeastern  part  of  the  country, 
yield  abundant  supplies  of  building  stone,  lime,  marble,  and 
roofing  slate.  Belgium  produces  about  1,000,000  tons  of  pig 
iron  a  year  and  600,000  tons  of  steel,  holding  the  fourth 
place  in  Europe  as  a  ^oroducer,  after  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, and  France. 

Belgium  is  pre-eminently  a  manufacturing  country  (Fig. 
104).  It  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  important,  but  also 
one  of  the  oldest  industrial  states.  It  has  the  advantage 
as  an  industrial  nation  of  great  mineral  resources,  dense 
population,  skilled  labor,  and  large  capital.  More  than 
1,000,000  people,  employing  the  best  machinery,  are  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing  pursuits,  and  a  very  large  part  of 
their  product  is  intended  for  export.  Belgium  produces 
more  manufactured  goods  per  cajji/a  than  any  other  nation 
of  continental  Euroi)e. 

The  metal  industries,  which  are  based  on  tlie  produc- 
lion  of  coal,  iron,  steel,  lead,  and  zinc,  are  of  tlie  first 
importance.     The  principal  centers  of  these  industries  are 


246  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Charleroi,  Kamur,  and  Verviers.  Liege,  in  the  center  of  the 
mining  district  of  east  Belgium,  is  one  of  the  great  manu- 
facturing cities  of  the  country.  It  has  long  heen  famous 
for  its  firearms,  turning  out  cannon  and  about  1,000,000 
small  arms  a  year,  which  are  sold  all  over  the  world. 
Machinery,  glass,  and  chemicals  are  also  large  products  of 
Liege  and  the  neighboring  city  of  Seraing. 

About  one  fifth  of  the  entire  jiopulation  of  the  country 
is  employed  in  mining  and  the  working  of  metals  and 
fibers.  The  skill  and  aptitude  the  workmen  have  acquired, 
together  with  abundance  of  coal  at  the  doors  of  the  fac- 
tories, have  enabled  the  Belgians  to  compote  with  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  in  marketing  industrial  products  that 
are  both  excellent  and  cheap. 

Belgium  makes  most  of  her  own  machinery,  selling 
other  countries  three  times  as  much  as  is  bought  from 
them.  Machinery  and  tools  for  the  working  of  metals  are 
large  products  of  Charleroi,  Mons,  and  Liege.  Ghent  makes 
spinning  and  weaving  machinery ;  Dinant  is  noted  for  tin 
and  copper  wares.  All  kinds  of  railroad  materials  are 
made  in  large  establishments  at  Brussels,  Liege,  Seraing, 
and  Verviers.  Liege,  Xamur,  and  Charleroi  are  pre-eminent 
for  nails  and  other  hardware.  The  porcelain  and  glass 
Avorks  are  along  the  coal  belt  from  Jemmapes,  with  its  large 
crockery  industries,  to  Liege. 

Belgium,  in  proportion  to  population,  makes  twice  as  much 
woolen  cloth  as  France  produces.  The  people  of  Flanders, 
in  the  middle  ages,  were  the  greatest  woolen-cloth  makers 
in  Europe ;  but  the  woolen  industries  have  been  transferred 
to  Verviers,  Dolhain,  Limburg,  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try, where  it  is  most  convenient  to  collect  the  home  sup- 
plies of  wool. 

Linen  and  cotton  have  largely  superseded  woolen  fabrics 
in  northwestern  Belgium.  Large  supplies  of  cotton  are 
shipped  up  the  Schelde  Kiver  to  Ghent,  which  is  the  chief 
city  of  cotton  production,  though  Courtrai  and  Tournai 


BELGIUM  247 

are  also  important  centers.  Belgium  makes  the  finest  of 
cottons,  and  also,  like  England  and  Germany,  turns  out 
large  quantities  of  cheap  goods  for  the  Congo  and  other 
African  markets.  Ghent  holds  the  first  rank  in  the  spin- 
ning and  weaving  of  flax,  and  Belgian  artisans  excel  also 
in  the  production  of  fine  linens.  Brussels,  Courtrai,  and 
Bruges  are  also  large  linen  producers.  Mechlin  has  con- 
tributed more  than  any  other  city  to  make  Belgium  famous 
for  its  laces,  over  150,000  girls  and  women  making  lace 
here  and  in  other  towns. 

Beer  is  the  national  beverage ;  breweries  are  therefore 
numerous,  the  product  of  Louvain  being  particularly  es- 
teemed. Antwerp  is  the  great  center  of  distilleries  which 
employ  cereals,  beets,  and  the  potato  in  tlie  manufacture  of 
alcoholic  liquors.  Belgium  makes  all  its  sugar,  and  exports 
large  quantities.  Sugar  mills  are  scattered  over  the  coun- 
try from  Hainault  to  Antwerp,  a  large  part  of  the  product 
being  refined  in  Antwerp,  as  it  is  most  conveniently  sliipj^ed 
from  that  city. 

Seven  eighths  of  the  sea  trade  passes  through  the  port  of 
Antwerp.  At  flood  tide  tlie  largest  vessels  may  ascend  the 
Schelde  to  its  wharves.  Brussels,  Ghent,  and  Bruges  are 
interior  ports,  which  are  being  transformed  into  maritime 
ports  by  the  deepening  of  the  canal  and  river  from  Brus- 
sels, the  Terneuzen  canal  from  Ghent,  and  tlio  canal  from 
Bruges  to  Zeebrugge  on  tbo  North  Sea  near  Ostend.  Bel- 
gium has  practically  no  mcrcbant  marine,  British,  Dutch, 
and  American  steamers  making  millions  of  dollars  in  the 
Antwerp  trade. 

A  network  of  canals  and  railroads  covers  tbe  flat  coun- 
try, which,  with  its  sea  connections,  affords  Belgium  marked 
advantages  for  trade  with  tbe  surrounding  countries.  A 
large  system  of  interior  navigation  has  been  developed,  tlie 
canals  serving  not  only  for  freiglit  boats,  but  also  to  drain 
the  lowlands  and  to  irrigate  tbe  Oampiue.  Tbe  Mouse 
has  been  canalized  as  far  as  the  German  frontier,  and  ilie 


248  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Scliekle  is  navigable  above  Ghent  by  raeans  of  locks.  Situ- 
ated between  great  commercial  nations,  Belgium  does  a 
great  forwarding  business.  In  1898  commodities  worth 
170,000,000  entered  the  country  on  their  way  to  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  other  continental  countries,  and  $05,000,- 
000  worth  of  goods  passed  through  Belgium  on  the  way  to 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Belgium  buys  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials  and  sells  man- 
iifactured  products.  The  forest  area  is  inadequate  for  the 
production  of  the  lumber  required,  and  consequently  the 
imports  are  large.  Building  lumber  is  one  of  the  most 
important  articles  in  the  Belgian  import  trade.  Sweden 
and  Xorway  supply  the  greater  part  of  it,  followed  closely 
by  Russia,  (Jermany,  France,  and  the  United  States. 

The  largest  imports  are  cereals,  fibers,  timber,  and  chem- 
icals. A  large  part  of  the  grain,  cotton,  and  animal  })rod- 
ucts  consumed  come  from  America.  The  leading  imports 
from  the  United  States  are  wheat,  maize,  cotton,  meats, 
refined  petroleum,  drugs,  unmanufactured  tobacco,  and  oil 
cake.  Belgium's  largest  export  and  import  trade  is  with 
the  neighboring  countries — France,  Great  Britain,  and  Hol- 
land, except  that  tlie  imports  from  the  United  States  are 
usually  larger  than  from  any  other  country  except  France. 
The  manufacture  of  fine  furiiiture  for  export,  particularly 
church  furniture,  is  an  important  industry  of  GlienJ>^ 

The  chief  exports  are  yarn,  coal,  cloths,  machinery,  iron 
and  steel,  raw  and  refined  sugar,  glass,  zinc,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances. The  United  States  liuys  from  Belgium  less  than 
half  as  much  as  she  sells  to  her,  the  most  important  pur- 
chases being  firearms,  cement,  raw  wool,  india  rubber  (from 
the  Congo),  glass,  and  raw  beet  sugar.  Belgium  supplies 
the  world  Avith  most  of  its  ivory,  as  the  Congo  Free  State, 
of  which  the  king  of  the  Belgians  is  sovereign,  is  the  largest 
source  of  supply ;  Antwerp  is  the  leading  ivory  market. 

Manufactures  and  mining  have  made  Belgium  one  of 
the  richest  countries  in  Europe.     It  can  consume  only  a 


BELGIUM  249 

part  of  its  manufactures ;  as  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
depends  upon  large  foreign  markets  for  its  surplus,  its 
merchants  have  in  recent  years  pushed  its  trade  in  fofeign 
lands  with  much  energy. 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  is  a  neutral  area  between 
Belgium  and  Germany.  It  has  very  rich  deposits  of  iroji 
and  exports  much  ore  to  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  farmers,  vineyards  being  par- 
ticularly numerous.  The  chief  industries  are  iron  working 
and  glove  manufactures.  As  a  member  of  the  ZoUverein, 
Luxemburg's  trade  statistics  are  included  with  those  of 
Germany. 

STATISTICS   FOR   BELGIUM 

Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

msi-'sn. 

Imports o02 . 0 

Exports 260.0 

Population  (1898),  6,009,732. 
Gold  standard,  with  the  franc  as  tiie 
Metric  weights  and  measures. 


1891-'95. 

1899. 

326.5 

4;J6.2 

277.0 

;J7G.2 

unit 

of 

coinage. 

CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE    NETHERLANDS 

The  Dutch  are  a  trading  and  cattle-raising  nation.  They 
are  the  best  example  of  a  people  who  have  become  wealthy 
by  trade,  though  their  manufactux'ing  industries  are  very 
small.  Large  colonial  jiossessions  have  widened  their  field 
of  activity,  which  is  restricted  at  home,  and  supplied  them 
with  much  material  for  the  exercise  of  their  mercantile 
talents. 

The  Netherlands  are  the  lowest  and  flattest  country  in 
Europe.  (The  name  means  "  low  country  "  ;  it  is  also  called 
Ilollund,  Woodland,  the  name  of  the  principal  province.) 
About  three  sevenths  of  the  surface,  the  land  nearest  the 
sea,  is  at  or  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  reclamation  of 
this  land  is  one  of  the  great  achievements  of  human  energy. 
Dikes  fifty  to  sixty  feet  high  have  been  reared  along  the 
coast  to  keep  out  the  sea,  the  banks  of  the  rivers  have  been 
raised  to  keep  the  waters  in  tlie  channels,  marshes  have 
been  drained,  and  drifting  sands  successfully  fought.  The 
latest  enterprise  is  to  build  a  dike  across  the  entrance  to 
the  Zuider  Zee  (South  Sea)  to  transform  it  into  a  fertile 
plain. 

The  flat  surface  and  numerous  waterways  facilitate  com- 
merce. Transport  of  goods  is  exceedingly  easy,  because 
(1)  the  country  is  covered  with  a  network  of  canals,  which 
serve  the  triple  purpose  of  affording  navigable  highways, 
draining  the  land,  and  taking  the  place  of  fences  around 
many  fields ;  (2)  the  rivers  are  international  and  provide 
250 


THE   NETHERLANDS  251 

cheap  carriage,  on  the  Maas  (Meuse  in  Belgium  and  France) 
across  Belgium,  and  on  the  Rhine  to  southern  Germany ; 
and  (3)  the  level  lands  make  railroad  building  easy,  though 
many  bridges  are  required.  Smooth  brick  wagon  roads 
cover  the  country,  where,  a  century  ago,  there  was  not  a 
rod  of  good  highway. 

The  winds,  unimpeded  by  highlands,  are  a  source  of  power. 
In  no  country  is  wind  energy  so  largely  utilized  as  in  the 
Netherlands,  many  of  the  reclaimed  areas  being  kept  dry 
by  pumps  operated  by  windmills,  which  are  also  used  to 
supply  power  for  various  industries.  The  east  winds  tend 
to  make  the  winters  severe,  but,  on  the  whole,  the  climate 
is  agreeable. 

Agriculture  thrives  best  in  the  reclaimed  lands  and  on 
alluvial  soils  formed  by  the  rivers.  The  best  soils,  there- 
fore, are  near  the  sea  or  in  the  soutli.  Much  of  the  country 
is  too  sandy  for  the  best  tillage,  but  cereals  are  raised  in 
the  east  (Fig.  103),  where  great  rivers  enter  the  country; 
the  reclaimed  lands  and  polders  on  and  near  the  coast  have 
abundant  rainfall,  with  a  rich  growth  of  grass,  making 
them  a  zone  of  pastures,  where  great  numbers  of  cattle 
and  horses  are  raised,  and  dairying  is  a  large  industry.  The 
polilers — low,  inland  tracts,  protected  by  dikes  from  the 
waters  that  formerly  made  them  unhealthful  marshes — 
extend  through  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium,  and  are 
among  the  best  lands  in  both  countries  (Fig.  105). 

Beet  sugar,  rye,  and  vegetables  are  the  chief  agricultural 
:  products.  Tlie  country  ranks  sixth  in  tlie  prodiictiou  of 
beet  sugar,  raised  in  the  richer  lauds  of  the  river  valleys 
(Fig.  44).  Only  a  small  part  of  the  people  eat  "black" 
lyr  bread,  preferring  a  mixture  of  rye  and  wheat;  much 
American  wheat  supplements  the  home  supply.  The  rais- 
ing of  vegetables  and  flowers  for  the  home  and  British 
markets  are  large  industries,  Haarlem  being  the  center  of 
the  trade  in  flowers.  But  tlie  most  important  resource  of 
the  Dutch  farmer  is  cattle,  which  were  formerly  sent  alive 


252  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

in  grccat  numbers  to  England  (p.  78).  In  proportion  to 
area,  the  Netherlands  have  twice  as  many  cattle  as  France. 
Butter  is  a  large  export  to  England;  Edam  cheese  (Fig. 
27),  a  sj)ecialty  of  the  region  east  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  made 
in  a  few  factories  and  in  many  hundreds  of  farmhouses,  is 
found  in  most  cheese  markets  of  the  world.  As  many  as 
200,000  Edam  cheeses  are  sometimes  in  the  market  at  Alk- 
maar  (Fig.  102).  Several  millions  of  sheep  graze  in  the 
meager  pastures  of  tlie  south  and  northeast. 

The  fisheries  are  important  (Fig.  102  and  p.  91).  The 
oyster  and  herring  are  taken  in  large  quantities  ;  the  oyster 
thrives  in  the  alluvial  mud  brought  down  by  the  rivers,  and 
is  protected  from  the  waves  of  the  North  Sea  by  the  many 
islands  along  the  coast.  Dutch  fishermen  are  also  active  in 
the  cod  and  other  Xorth  Sea  and  Iceland  fisheries ;  many 
herring  and  anchovies  (not  the  real  anchovy  of  more  south- 
ern seas,  but  sprats)  are  packed. 

Timber  and  building  materials  are  lacking.  There  are 
no  large  forests ;  the  country  is  one  of  the  principal  buyers 
of  lumber  in  the  world,  purchasing  most  of  it  from  Eussia 
and  Scandinavia,  but  pitch  pine  from  the  United  States. 
Coal  and  iron  come  mainly  down  the  Rhine  from  Germany. 
If  it  were  not  for  cheap  ocean  freights  the  Xetherlands 
could  use  no  stone  for  structural  purposes,  for  it  has  no 
home  supply. 

Manufactures  are  not  numerous  (Fig.  101).  Most  of  the 
elements  for  large  industrial  development  are  lacking. 
Coal  and  iron  are  brought  to  Amsterdam  and  The  Hague 
from  England  and  Germany  for  the  construction  of  rail- 
road material,  ships,  and  hardware.  Most  of  the  industries 
are  connected  with  the  transformation  of  agricultural 
products,  as  liqueurs  (cura9ao),  made  from  the  orange  peel 
grown  in  the  Dutch  island  of  that  name  and  also  in  Spain  ; 
the  famous  Holland  gin,  distilled  from  rye  at  Schiedam 
and  Rotterdam ;  manufactured  tobacco  and  cigars,  from 
home-grown  or  East  Indies  leaf  at  Amsterdam  and  Utrecht : 


THE   NETHERLANDS 


253 


and  oil,  from  imported  oilseeds  at  Delft.     A   few  towns, 
indicated  in  Fig.  104,  produce  woolen,  cotton,  and  linen 


THE   NETHERLANDS, 
BELGIUM 

AXD   LUXEMBUUG 
Industries  and  Coiiimoree 


^ 


-■'•^*   ir^"*"^"'       "--"'V-     ,\,i/".<>i    ^     y^        \    -\  """Els 


ircae  of  mast  int^nmvcinduBtrws    f^ 
I  Ttu  Ilelgian-Frmch  coal  Jicld 


textiles.     Diamond  cuttiiii:;,  once  a  great  industry  in  Am- 
sterdam, iiauded  down  througi)  generations  of  Jewish  cut^ 


254  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPnY 

ters,  is  declining,  owing  to  the  competition  of  Antwerp, 
Piiris,  and  London.  Brick  and  tile,  indispensable  in  a 
country  without  stone,  are  made  in  abundance ;  Delft  still 
produces  the  glazed  earthenware  that  long  ago  made  the 
town  famous. 

Before  England  rose  to  industrial  greatness  Holland  was 
pre-eminent  in  cloth  manufactures  and  shipbuilding.  The 
decline  of  the  Dutch  in  political  power,  as  well  as  their 
poverty  in  useful  minerals,  has  caused  industrial  decline 
and  pushed  commerce  and  cattle-raising  to  the  front. 

The  chief  trade  is  in  the  import  and  re-export  of  colonial 
products.  The  Dutch  East  Indies,  extending  from  Sumatra 
to  New  Guinea,  are  more  than  sixty  times  as  large  as  the 
mother  country  and  have  seven  times  the  population.  They 
send  four  fifths  of  their  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  quinine,  indigo, 
dyewoods,  spices,  gums,  tin,  and  tobacco  to  Rotterdam  and 
Amsterdam.  Some  of  these  commodities  are  largely  en- 
hanced in  value  by  manufacture  in  the  Xetherlands,  Java 
raw  sugar,  for  example,  being  refined  at  Amsterdam,  Java  ' 
and  Sumatra  tobacco  made  into  cigars,  and  quinine  pre- 
pared for  the  market.  These  colonial  products  are  sold  by 
Dutch  merchants  in  many  lands.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
colonies  buy  from  the  mother  country  great  quantities  of 
cottons  and  other  manufactures  made  at  home  or  imported 
for  them.  Excepting  Europe,  the  colonies  are  the  best 
customers  of  the  Netherlands. 

Most  exports  of  home  products  go  to  neighboring  countries. 
They  consist  mainly  of  butter,  cheese,  meat,  and  oleomar- 
garine, England,  Germany,  and  Belgium  being  the  largest 
buyers.  Exports  of  colonial  products  have  a  wider  mar- 
ket; the  United  States  buys  Sumatra  tobacco,  chocolate, 
coffee,  sugar,  and  South  African  diamonds  cut  and  polished 
in  Amsterdam. 

Most  imports  for  home  consumption  come  from  neighboring 
countries  and  the  United  States.  The  United  States,  send- 
ing wheat,  flour,  maize,  rye,  leaf    tobacco,  tallow,  bacon. 


THE   NETHERLANDS  255 

lard,  petroleum,  and  lumber,  contributes  about  one  eigbth 
of  the  imports;  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  Bel- 
gium supply  nearly  all  the  other  imports,  chiefly  manufac- 
tures, coal,  timber,  and  metals.  Most  of  the  home  trade, 
as  distinguished  from  colonial  trade,  is  with  these  European 
countries. 

Large  profit  is  derived  from  the  forwarding  trade.  Both 
Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  receive  great  quantities  of  com- 
modities from  all  the  Rhine  ports  of  Germany  for  shipment 
abroad.  A  great  deal  of  American  cotton  and  cereals  go 
to  these  ports  on  the  way  to  Germany.  Steamboats  ply 
between  Rotterdam  and  South  Germany,  connecting  there 
with  the  canal  system  leading  to  Marseilles.  Tank  steamers 
carrying  American  petroleum  distribute  it  among  scores  of 
German  towns ;  nearly  all  the  Spanish  and  Swedish  iron  ore 
used  at  Essen  is  carried  from  Rotterdam  up  the  Rhine. 
Other  Rotterdam  steamers  ply  to  east  ]-5elgian  towns  on  the 
Meuse ;  the  Sud-Guillaume  Canal  connects  the  rivers  of 
Holland  with  the  river  and  canal  system  of  west  Belgium ; 
til  us  Rotterdam  is  brought  by  waterways  into  close  touch 
with  Germany  and  Belgium.  Amsterdam's  connection  by 
river  and  canal  with  the  Rhine  enables  that  city  to  take  a 
hirg(;  though  inferior  part  in  the  transit  trade.  Switzer- 
land, without  ports,  and  Austria-Hungary,  with  only  two, 
send  to  the  Netherlands  numy  industrial  products,  by  water 
and  rail,  for  shipment  to  other  lands. 

Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  are  the  only  important  ports 
(Fig.  104).  They  handle  nine  tenths  of  the  sea  trade, 
fully  three  fourths  of  which  pertains  to  Rotterdam,  whoso 
trade  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds  since  improvements 
in  navigation  in  the  lower  Maas  made  Rotterdam  wharves 
accessible  to  the  largest  vessels.  The  enormous  trade  of 
Rotterdam  Ijy  ocean  and  inland  water  routes  gives  that  port 
a  total  movement  of  10.000,000  tons  a  year,  which  is  double 
the  movement  of  Marseilles.  The  North  Holland  ship 
canal  (Fig.  27),  opened  in  1877,  admits  vessels  of  the  largest 


250  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

draft  to  Amsterdam.  All  canals  and  rivers  are  free  to 
foreign  as  well  as  Dutch  vessels,  as  the  people  do  not  place 
the  slightest  impediment  in  the  way  of  commerce.  It  is  a 
free-trade  country,  duties  being  levied  on  a  few  articles 
only  for  purposes  of  revenue.  There  is  no  coasting  trade, 
as  inland  water  routes  are  preferred. 

The  Dutch  merchant  marine  being  small,  a  little  over 
half  of  the  sea  trade  is  carried  under  the  British  flag ;  but 
regular  lines  of  Dutch  steamships  connect  Rotterdam  and 
Amsterdam  with  New  York,  the  West  Indies,  Atlantic 
ports  of  South  America,  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  railroads  are  of  more  importance  for  international 
than  for  internal  commerce,  the  trade  from  one  town  to 
another  being  mostly  carried  by  water.  Railroads  carry 
practically  all  the  freight  that  England  sends  into  Central 
Europe.  Flushing  on  the  Schelde,  and  Hook  of  Holland, 
near  Rotterdam,  are  railroad  ports  on  the  main  routes 
between  England  and  Germany. 

The  merchant,  the  carrier,  and  the  farmer  are  the  leading 
factors  in  business.  The  foreign  trade  is  twice  as  large  as 
thut  of  Belgium,  though  the  latter  country  has  more  people 


ARABLE  LAND  27.7 


HAY  AND  PASTURE  34.  7 


UNPRODUCTIVE  30.  T 


Fig.  105. — Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  the  Netherlands. 

and  highly  developed  industries.  Though  the  Dutch,  in 
their  low  lands,  lack  some  of  the  most  important  sources 
of  wealth,  their  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  their 
vast  colonial  empire,  and  their  indomitable  energy  have 
made  them  a  great  commercial  nation. 

STATISTICS   FOR  THE   NETHERLANDS 
Average  Annual  Trade  (i\  Million  Dollars) 

ISSS-'Se.  lS02-"06. 

Imports 448.5  G02.5 

Exports 342.5  490.0 


THE   NETHERLANDS 


257 


Trade  wixn  Leading  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Belgium 

Im- 
ports. 

..     82.7 

Ex- 
ports. 

64.0 

0.7 

17.7 
140.1 

Prussia 

Russia 

Im- 
ports. 

..     56.1 

..     82.3 

Ex- 
ports. 

324.1 

Brazil    

..       8.4 

3.3 

British  India. . . . 
France 

..     18.3 

8.8 

Spain 

Java 

United  States. . . 

..      16.4 
..   116.2 

..     78.7 

1.3 
27.3 

Great  Britain. . . 

..   111.3 

14.4 

Population  (1897),  4,928,658. 

Gold  standard,  with  the  florin  (valued  at  40 1  cents)  as 


the  unit  of  coinage. 


Metric  weights  and  measures. 


17 


CHAPTEE  XXIV 

SCANDINAVIA 

The  Kingdom  of  Sweden  and  Norway  occupies  the  largest 
peninsula  of  Europe.  Each  has  its  own  local  government, 
but  both  acknowledge  one  king.  The  kingdom  of  Den- 
mark is  a  part  of  the  great,  low  plain  of  north  Europe. 
The  Danes  and  Norwegians  speak  practically  the  same 
tongue  and  both  understand  the  older  Swedish  form  of 
their  closely  related  languages. 

Sweden  and  Norway  stand  on  a  high  plateau.  The  west- 
ern mountain  ranges  have  a  nuirked  effect  upon  clinuite 
and  commerce,  for  as  the  west  coast  receives  the  warm, 
moist  Atlantic  winds,  its  fifty  ports,  scattered  among  tlie 
fiords,  are  open  the  year  round.  The  mountains  that  shield 
them  from  the  icy  east  winds  of  winter  also  deprive  the 
eastern  plain  of  the  genial  influence  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
west,  therefore,  has  the  sea  climate  and  the  east  tlie  conti- 
nental climate  (p.  7).  All  the  east  ports  are  closed  by  ice 
from  three  to  five  months.  All  farms,  except  strips  of  grain 
land  in  Norway  fiords,  are  in  the  domain  of  the  continental 
climate.  Being  in  the  latitude  of  Labrador,  the  growing 
season  is  short ;  the  winter  is  long  and  cold ;  the  rigorous 
climate  and  limited  fertility  prevent  the  cultivation  of  a 
large  area  (Figs.  106  and  107). 

Half  of  the  Swedes  and  a  fourth  of  the  Norwegians  are 

farmers.     Tlie  largest  and  most  productive  area  of   farm 

lands  (Fig.  108)  is   in  Gothland,  where  grain  returns  as 

much  to  the  acre  as  in  England ;  but  although  there  is  this 

358 


SCANDINAVIA  259 

fertility  in  tlie  southern  part  of  Sweden,  the  kingdom  im- 
ports every  year,  mainly  from  the  Baltic  countries,  about 
12,000  tons  more  breadstulfs  than  it  produces,  including 
a  little  wheat  from  the  United  States.     The  suffar  beet 


ARABLE 
LAND 
8.2 

!|^                              FOREST  44.2 

UNPRODUCTIVE  43.6 

FiQ.  lot). — Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Sweden. 

thrives  in  the  extreme  south,  but  the  sugar  output   is  not 
equal  to  the  demand. 

Dairy  products  are  important  exports.  The  Swedes  raise 
grain  and  butter  for  ex2)ort,  but  the  Norwegians  are  forced 
to  import  considerable  quantities.  The  kingdom  formerly 
imported    much   butter,  but    since  1870  the   herds   have 


S" 

li 

I         FOREST  24.0 

UNPRODUCTIVE  71.1 

Fig.  107.— Sulidivi.sions  of  tlie  soil  in  Norway. 

greatly  increased,  and  millions  of  pounds  are  now  exported 
every  year  from  Sweden  to  Circat  Britain  and  other  coun- 
tries. Norway  has  cnly  one  third  of  the  cattle,  but  the 
poorer  pastures  of  Norway  give  adequate  grazing  for  the 
larger  part  of  the  sheep;  much  wool,  however,  is  imported 
for  the  Miills  of  Sweden. 

The  fisheries  are  very  important  in  both  countries  (p.  1)3 
and  Fig.  108).  Three  fourths  of  the  catch  is  taken  by  Nor- 
wegian fisliermen  along  the  Norway  coast,  where  cod,  her- 
ring, mackerel,  and  the  so-caHed  anchovy,  a  variety  of 
lierring,  are  caught  in  vast  numbers  among  the  (|uieter 
waters  in  the  lee  of  the  islands.  Snlnion  abound  in  the 
fiords  and  rivers  of  both  countries.  All  the  ports  of  Nor- 
way are  fishing  ports,  but  the  greatest  fishing  center  is  the 
Lofoten  islands,  whore  40,000  men  and  7,000  small  vessels 
are  engaged  in  March,  the  ])usiest  season  of  the  year.  Most 
of  the  cod  and  herring  catch  is  cured  on  the  islands,  sent  to 
the  ports  by  steamer,  and  four  fiftlis  of  it  exported  to  the 


260 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


large  fish-eating  countries  of  Europe.     From  10,000  to  20,- 
000  barrels  of  mackerel  are  packed  every  year. 

Lumber  and  timber  are  the  largest  articles  of  trade  (Fig. 
108).     Sweden  has  5,000  saw  mills,  run  by  water  power. 


SCANDINATIA 

Agriculture  and 
Fisheries 

SCALE,  1:  22,000,000 
0  100  200 


Fig.  108. — The  largest  mining  intwests  are  in  the  north,  the  forest  industries  are  in 
the  middle  regions,  and  agriculture  and  stock  raising  are  mainly  confined  to  the 
area  south  of  the  sixtieth  parallel.  The  fisheries  extend  along  the  entire  coasts. 
Some  thousands  of  Lapps  or  Finns  live  in  Lapland  ;  a  jiart  of  them  snbsist  by 
fishing  (Sea  Lapps),  while  the  reindeer  supplies  food,  drink,  and  clothing  to  the 
remainder  (Reindeer  Lapps). 

and,  because  its  markets  are  very  convenient  to  importing 
countries  of  north  Europe,  is  the  largest  lumber  and  tim- 
ber exporting  country  in  the  world.  The  Xorway  pines 
and  spruces,  convenient  to  Christiauia  and  other  shipping 


SCANDINAVIA  2f;i 

points,  have  been  depleted  in  many  places ;  the  more 
northern  forests  in  Sweden  are  now  the  larger  source  of 
lumber  (p.  114),  Lumber,  timber,  and  naval  stores,  which 
are  sent  as  far  away  as  Australia,  are  nearly  half  the  total 
exports  of  the  kingdom. 

Iron  ore  is  the  largest  source  of  mineral  wealth  (Fig.  109). 
About  1,000,000  tons  are  mined  every  year  near  Gefle,  Falun, 
Danneniora,  and  other  points,  the  largest  supply  coming 
from  Gellivare,  130  miles  north  of  the  arctic  circle.  The 
most  northern  railroad  in  the  world  carries  the  Gellivare 
ore  to  the  port  of  Lulea.  As  Baltic  ports  are  closed  in 
winter,  a  railroad  is  being  built  (1901)  from  Gellivare  to 
Ofoten  fiord,  northwest  Xorway,  so  that  the  ore  may  be 
delivered  at  all  seasons  to  steel  works  in  Great  Britain  and 
Germany.  Magnetite  and  manganese  ores  for  steel  making 
abound ;  Swedish  ores  are  beginning  to  rival  those  of  Spain 
in  British  and  German  markets.  Rich  silver,  copper,  and 
zinc  mines  are  worked  at  j^laces  indicated  in  Fig.  109. 

Goteborg  is  the  most  active  port  (Fig.  109).  It  is  more 
conveniently  situated  than  Stockholm  for  trade  with  all 
Xorth  Sea  and  many  Baltic  ports,  and  is  therefore  the 
largest  center  of  imports,  many  of  which  are  carried  in 
summer  by  the  river  and  canal  route,  180  miles  long, 
through  Lakes  Wener  and  Wetter  to  Stockholm  (Fig. 
109).  It  exports  a  great  deal  of  lumber,  wood  pulp,  grain, 
and  fish.  Stockholm,  the  capital,  is  the  chief  commercial 
center,  and  receives  most  of  the  wlieat  and  flour  imports, 
many  imports  through  other  ports  being  sent  to  Stockliolm 
for  distribution.* 

*  Norrkoping,  sonth  of  Stockholm,  important  in  sea  trade,  is  also 
11i(!  leadinf^indiistriiil  town  ;  Maliiu'J  and  IIelsiii<^l)nrij:fXiiort  iariio  quan- 
tilios  of  cereals.  The  oliief  exports  of  Clirisliunia,  t lie  capital  of  Nor- 
way, are  lumber,  destined  for  many  parts  of  the  worlil,  and  fisli ;  a 
preat  deal  of  ice  also  is  sent  to  England.  The  neighboring  towns  of 
Fredrikstad  and  Drammen  are  also  timber  ports.  Bergen  has  the 
largest  fish  exports  in  the  country,  and  receives  much  merchandise. 


202  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Inland  waterways  afford  water  power,  but  little  naviga- 
tion. Commerce  is  active,  however,  both  on  the  southern 
hikes  and  on  tlie  river,  hike,  and  canal  route  between  Gote- 
borg  and  Stockholm.  Eailroads  are  cheaply  built,  because 
of  the  small  cost  of  land,  lumber,  and  iron.  Uninter- 
rupted rail  communications  extend  between  Gellivare  in 
the  north  and  Malmo  in  the  south,  over  1,200  miles,  or 
farther  than  from  Boston  to  Chicago  (Fig.  109). 

Most  manufactures  come  from  foreign  lands.  The  king- 
dom lacks  coal,  dense  population,  and  capital  required  for 
large  manufacturing  development.  Industries,  however, 
are  growing.* 

Sea  enterprise  is  a  large  interest  in  Norway.  Its  people 
are  a  race  of  sailors ;  in  proportion  to  population  they  have 
the  largest  merchant  marine  in  the  world  (p.  48).  Having 
comparatively  small  commerce  of  their  own,  tlieir  ships  and 
crews  take  part  in  the  trade  of  many  other  nations.  Xot  a 
few  of  them  are  engaged  in  the  fruit  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  Central  America.  The  Xorwegians  buy 
from  other  nations  much  more  than  they  sell  to  them  ;  but 
from  the  apparent  balance  of  trade  against  them  must  be 

Troiidhjeni,  tlie  starting  point  of  stcimcrs  to  the  North  Cape,  is  visited 
every  year  by  thousands  of  tourists,  who  go  by  rail  to  this  port  to  em- 
bark for  tlie  Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun. 

*  Wood  is  used  to  reduce  iron  ores  at  Danneniora,  Norrkoping, 
Eskilstuna,  Motala,  and  a  few  other  places  in  the  Stockholm  district, 
where  home-made  steel  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery, 
tools,  hardware,  and  other  articles.  Tlie  first  Scandinavian  locomotive 
was  built  in  1893.  The  most  important  industries  are  derived  from 
wood,  including  a  great  deal  of  cheap  furjiiture  and  wood  pulp.  Ship- 
building is  active  at  Stockholm,  Gefle,  and  Goteborg.  Matclimaking 
is  a  large  industry,  many  tons  of  matches  being  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Woolen  and  cotton  factories  at  Stockholm,  Norrko{)ing,  Gote- 
borg, and  elsewhere  are  far  from  filling  the  demand.  Linen  spinning 
and  weaving,  a  house  occupation,  more  nearly  meet  the  textile  require- 
ments. Canning  salmon  is  important  at  Bergen,  Stavanger.  and  other 
centers.  Breweries  and  distilleries  are  numerous ;  tanning  leather  is 
important  in  a  country  which  raises  so  many  cattle. 


Kill.  109.— The  most.  inii)ortaiit  Swedish  railroad  connects  Stockholm  and  tiolcliorf,', 
the  l<'ading  ports.  A  number  of  branches  north  and  soutli  of  the  main  line  pro- 
vide th('  more  poi)iilous  |)art  of  the  country  with  adecpiate  transportation.  The 
most  important  of  these  l)raiiches  connect  the  cai)ital  witli  Christiania  on  tlie 
north  and  MalniO  on  the  south.  Trondhjcm  (Kii;.  V.i).  a  fiord  port  that  never 
freezes,  lias  Ix-come  the  winter  i)ort  of  Slockliolin  since  the  railroad  across  the 
peninsula  was  Ijuilt.  Observe  the  short  l)r.'iiicli  lines  from  the  nortliern  railroad, 
which  carry  timber,  naval  stores,  and  iron  and  copper  ores  to  small  sliipi)ini,'  i>ortH 
on  the  (iulf  of  I'.othnia.  The  most  important  of  these  ports  is  Gelle,  the  center 
of  the  Swedish  forest  industries. 

20:5 


204  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHy 

deducted  all  the  money  they  earn  in  carrying  foreign 
freight  (p.  158). 

The  kingdom  has  only  a  few  commodities  to  sell ;  it  needs 
to  buy  many  things.  The  abundant  product  of  its  forests, 
fisheries,  iron  and  zinc  mines,  dairies,  and  oat  fields  is  sold 
abroad.  It  must  buy  coal,  cotton,  coffee,  salt,  and  fruits, 
which  it  does  not  produce.  To  supplement  the  meager 
home  production  it  requires  large  imports  of  textiles,  raw 
wool,  machinery,  railroad  iron,»feog  products,  and  many 
other  things.  Nearly  everything  it  buys  comes  from  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Baltic  and  Xorth  Seas,  the  only  lands 
with  which  ib  has  direct  steam  communications;  nearly  all 
it  sells  goes  to  those  countries.  The  United  States  has 
such  commodities  as  the  kingdom  sells  much  nearer  at 
hand,  and  therefore  imports  from  it  only  about  $3,000,000 
worth  of  goods  a  year.  It  sells  to  Sweden  and  Xorway  cot- 
ton, wheat,  provisions,  tools,  machinery,  fertilizers,  locomo- 
tives, and  leather  goods  worth  four  times  as  much  as  its 
imports. 

Denmark,  after  the  Netherlands,  is  the  lowest  country  in 
Europe.  Nearly  surrounded  by  water,  the  moist  sea  climate 
prevails  in  summer  ;  but  the  climate  is  distinctly  conti- 
nental in  winter,  when  the  winds  from  Siberia  sweep  over 
the  frozen  Baltic,  which  is  only  one  fourth  as  salt  as  the 
ocean  and  freezes  more  easily.  The  western  half,  the  Jut- 
land peninsula,  is  continental,  with  fine  pastures  and  also 
many  peat  bogs  and  sand  wastes  that  form  the  unproduc- 
tive area  (Fig.  110).     The  eastern  half  is  insular;  it  is  the 


ARABLE  LAND  42.5 

HAY  AND  PASTURE  28.2 

|2 

UNPRODUCTIVE  24.7 

Fio.  110.— Subdivisions  of  Uie  soil  in  Denmark. 

more  valuable  part  of  the  kingdom,  because  it  is  more  fer- 
tile, with  fine  waterways  between  the  low,  flat  islands,  mak- 
ing communications  easy.  All  the  harbors  are  Baltic  ports, 
which  freeze  in  winter. 


SCANDINAVIA  26f 

Denmark  is  a   dairying  and  agricultural  country  (Fig. 
108).     Xo  laud  lias  achieved  more  remarkable  progress  iij 
these  industries.     Most  of  the  farms,  containing  only  fivG 
to  twenty-five  acres,  are  owned  by  the  peasantry,  who,  by 
scientific  agriculture,  have  made  the  naturally  sandy  soil« 
very   fertile.     Though   large  crops  of   cereals   are   raised,' 
breadstuffs  are  imported  ;  with  about  half  the  laud  in  oats,  "^ 
hay,  pasture,  and  root  crops,  which  serve  as  provender  for , 
great  numbers  of  horses,  milch  cows,  and  sheep,  all  the  ' 
breadstuffs  required  can  not  be  raised.     Dairy  products  are 
the  largest  exports.     In  proportion  to  size,  Denmark  has 
more  cattle  than  any  other  country  in  Europe.     Farmers  ^. 
are  required  to  produce  milk,  butter,  and   cheese  under 
strict  sanitary  conditions,  the  cows  being  examined  every  ^ 
month.     Most  of  the  milk  is  sent  to  over  1,000  steam  butter    •• 
factories,  managed  by  an  association  to  which  nearly  all 
the  farmers  belong,  whose  aim  is  to  produce  the  very  best 
butter  and  place  it  in  foreign  markets.     This  system  has 
resulted   in   an   enormous  increase  in  butter  production. 
Great  Britain,  the  largest  purchaser,  buys  over  $33,000,000 
worth   every   year.      Other   countries,    especially   tropical 
lands,  buy  it  packed  in  air-tight  boxes.     Close  attention  is 
paid  to  the  various  demands  of  the  markets,  the  butter 
sent  to  England,  for  instance,  being  light  in  color  and 
salted  but  little,  while  that  sent  to  Central  America  is  yel- 
low and  very  salt. 

Numerous  beef  cattle  are  sent  to  foreign  markets,  though 
the  meat  trade  is  growing  at  the  expense  of  live  shipments, 
owing  to  British  and  German  laws  against  live-stock  im- 
ports. Horses,  in  high  repute  for  cavalry  and  draft  pur- 
poses, are  a  large  export.  Considerable  wool  is  exported, 
l)ut  most  is  used  in  local  mills.  Agricultural  societies  con- 
trol the  enormous  shipments  of  eggs,  the  mem])ers  agree- 
ing, under  penalty  of  a  fine,  to  deliver  none  but  fresh-laid 
eggs  (p.  203).  ''J'ho  fisheries  swell  the  country's  ex})orts 
considerably. 


200  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  timber  supply  is  insufficient.  The  Danes,  like  the 
Dutch,  liave  sacrificed  their  forests  to  increase  the  acreage 
of  farms  and  pastures.  Norway  and  Sweden  supply  most 
of  the  lumber.  White  oak  (duty  free)  is  imported  from 
the  United  States.* 

Industrial  development  is  restricted  by  lack  of  coal  or 
water  power.  Manufactures  are  only  for  local  consump- 
tion. The  most  important  branches  depend  for  material 
upon  agricultural  products,  as  flour  mills,  beet-sugar  works, 
distilleries,  and  breweries.  Copenhagen  and  Odense  make 
farm  machinery ;  Copenhagen  builds  ships,  and  has  large 
leather,  machinery,  and  other  industries.  East  Jutland 
towns  have  cloth  and  paper  mills. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital,  is  the  only  large  port.  It  is  the 
only  harbor  that  can  be  entered  by  large  vessels.  Standing 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic,  it  is  a  distributing  point  for 
Baltic  trade.  A  great  deal  of  freight  is  sent  to  Copenha- 
gen to  be  forwarded  on  smaller  vessels  to  Sweden,  Russia, 
and  other  Baltic  ports.  To  facilitate  this  growing  trade  a 
free  port  was  established  in  1894  (Fig.  91).  Steamship  lines 
connect  this  port  with  north  Europe,  New  York,  and  Bang- 
kok, Siam.  Aarhuus,  the  largest  town  in  Jutland,  and  Aal- 
borg,  the  commercial  center  of  the  north,  are  outlets  for 
grain,  cattle,  and  butter. 

Imports  are  larger  than  exports.  The  foreign  trade  lias 
been  trebled  since  1806,  when  dairying  began  to  be  impor- 
tant. Coal,  textiles,  timber,  machinery,  breadstuffs,  and 
animal  foods  are  the  largest  imports.  Butter,  eggs,  meat, 
and  live  animals  are  almost  tlie  sole  exports.  Most  of  the 
trade  is  with  north  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Large 
quantities  of  maize,  wheat,  oil  cake,  cotton,  and  an  impor- 


*  No  minerals  of  importance  are  proiluced  except  chalk,  celebrated 
for  its  purity,  which  is  used  in  lime  burnini;:.  glass,  cement,  putty,  wall 
paper,  and  other  manufactures.  It  is  exported  in  large  quantities  to 
all  Baltic  countries. 


SCANDINAVIA  267 

tant  amount  of  manufactures  are  imported  from  the  United 

States.* 

STATISTICS  FOR  SCANDINAVIA 
Average  Annual  Trade  of  Sweden  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891-'95.  1898. 

Imports 88.5  97.5  122.0 

Exports 67.5  88.5  92.4 

Average  Annual  Trade  of  Norway  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891-'9.5.  1899. 

Imports 40.5  59.5  83. 2t 

Exports 28.5  35.0  42.7 

Average  Annual  Trade  of  Denmark  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-''85.  1891-'9r..  1899. 

Imports 70.0  94.0  lOfi.Ot 

Kxports 50.0  70.5  72.0 

Population:  Sweden  (1898),  5,002,918;  Norway  (189G), 
2,111,500;  Denmark  (1890),  2,299,5(54. 

The  monetary  standard  in  the  Scandinavian  countries 
is  gold,  with  the  crown  (2Gf  cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage ; 
the  metric  system  is  authorized  ;  old  weights  and  measures 
that  are  still  used  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  tlie 
United  States. 

*  Many  sheep  are  raised  on  the  Faroe  Ishinds,  one  of  tlic  Danish 
colonies;  wool  and  leathers  from  the  innnmerable  birds  are  the  chief 
exports.  Iceland  i)roduces  little  bnt  fish,  cattle,  and  sheep,  which  arc 
exported  in  large  quantities.  Nearly  all  the  commodities  consumed, 
not  derived  from  these  animals,  are  imported.  Purs,  hides,  eiderdown, 
and  seal  oil  are  the  exports  of  ()i'eenlan<l,  whoso  trade  is  <a  monopoly  of 
IIk;  Danish  (iovernment.  The  mineral  cryolite,  found  in  commercial 
quantities  only  at  Ivigtut,  Greenland,  is  exported  to  Philadelphia  for 
the  manufacture  of  soda. 

f  Inchuling  the  trade  with  Swculen. 

J  Includiui,''  forwardiuj^  triule. 


CHAPTEE  XXV 

SWITZERLAND 

Switzerland  is  the  only  important  European  country,  except 
Servia,  without  seacoasts.     It  depends  upon  other  nations 

for  seaports  and  steamship  lines,  paying  large  sums  of 
money  to  foreign  transportation  companies  to  carry  all  its 
external  trade ;  yet,  in  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  it  main- 
tains an  important  and  growing  commerce  with  many  conn- 
tries.  Another  unusual  fact  is  that,  although  this  little 
republic,  which  is  not  quite  one  third  as  large  as  New  York 
State,  has  scarcely  any  coal  or  iron,  it  has  become  an  indus- 
trial country  of  the  first  rank.  Its  prosperity  is  due  to  cer- 
];ain  great  advantages  which  balance  the  unfavorable  con- 
ditions that  might  otherwise  keep  the  country  poor. 

Mountains  cover  more  than  half  of  the  country.  In  the 
north  are  the  Jura  ranges  (Fig.  Ill),  with  many  vineyards 
and  fields  on  the  lower  slopes,  pastures  rising  above  them, 
and  scores  of  industrial  towns  in  the  valleys.  In  the  south 
are  the  Swiss  Alps,  three  to  four  times  as  high  as  the  Juras, 
and  covering  this  part  of  the  country.  These  mountains 
are  thinly  populated  and  almost  unproductive,  except  for 
the  many  thousands  of  cattle  feeding  on  the  high  pastures 
in  summer,  and  straw  plait  braided  by  the  peasantry  in  the 
valleys.  Walled  steeply  in  between  these  northern  and 
southern  mountains  is  the  central  plain,  about  1,300  feet 
above  sea  level,  which  is  a  plain  only  by  contrast  with  the 
mountains  around  it ;  in  other  countries  it  would  be  re- 
garded as  an  elevated,  hilly  region.  Most  of  the  people 
268 


SWITZERLAND 


269 


live  in  the  plain,  which  is  as  densely  populated  as  France  or 
Germany.  The  larger  part  of  the  inhabitants  speak  Ger- 
man, but  Italian  is  the  language  of  the  southeast,  and 
French  is  spoken  in  the  western  portion  of  the  country. 

The  climate  varies  vertically,  not  horizontally.  The  plain 
is  comparatively  warm ;  it  has  larger  rainfall  (35  to  46 
inches  a  year)  than  most  other  parts  of  Europe,  because  so 


Fig.  111.— InduBtiit's  and  agriculture. 


much  vapor  in  the  air  is  condensed  in  the  cooler  altitudes 
of  tiie  mountains.  One  half  of  the  country  lies  above  the 
zone  of  agriculture  ;  snow  fields,  covering  the  ground  above 
8,500  feet,  help  the  farm  lands  below,  because  their  melting 
waters  carry  rock  waste  to  enrich  the  valleys  and  the  plain. 
Only  the  southern  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains  catch  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  (p.  15) ;  vineyards  and  orchards  are 
planted  on  these  sunny  slopes. 

Switzerland  derives  less  support  from  its  agricultural  re- 
sources than  any  country  in  Europe  except  Norway.     Only 


270  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

about  one  sixth  of  it,  an  area,  smaller  than  Oklahoma,  can 
be  tilled  (Fig.  113),  as  the  soil  is  not  rich  in  plant  food. 
Grain  is  raised  only  on  the  plain  and  in  deep  mountam 
valleys  ;  the  country  imports  from  Eussia,  Hungary,  and  the 
United  States  nearly  three  times  as  much  wheat  as  it  pro- 
duces. Fruit  culture  (mainly  apples,  pears,  and  cherries) 
is  a  much  larger  source  of  profit  than  grain.  Orchards  are 
planted  everywhere  in  sheltered  places.     Wine  culture  is  a 


ARABLE  LAND 
16.5 


HAY    AND    PASTURE    35.9 


FOREST    18. 4 


UNPRODUCTIVE    28.4 


Fig.  112.— Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Switzerland. 

The  unproductive-  area,  more  than  a  fourth  of  tlit-  entire  country,  is  confined  mainly 
to  the  snow-covered  regions  of  the  higher  Alps. 

widely  extended  and  profitable  industry,  particularly  in  the 
warmer  soil  along  the  shores  of  Lake  (Jeneva  and  some 
other  lakes  and  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Juras  and  the 
southern  Alps  (Fig.  Ill);  but  a  great  deal  more  wine  is 
imported  from  the  surrounding  countries  than  is  grown  in 
Swiss  vineyards. 

The  widespread  hay  and  pasture  lands  make  animal  indus- 
tries more  important  than  agriculture.  Cattle  grazing  is  the 
distinctive  Alpine  industry.  As  the  snow  melts  in  the 
spring  tens  of  thousands  of  cows  are  driven  to  the  high- 
lands to  feed  there  till  the  fall  frosts  compel  them  to  return 
to  their  winter  provender  of  hay.  The  herders  milk  the 
cows  and  make  cheese  and  butter,  cheese  being  the  principal 
output.  About  once  a  fortnight  supplies  are  taken  to  the 
herders  and  cheese  and  butter  are  carried  down  to  the  mar- 
kets. Meanwhile  the  farmers  in  the  j^lain  are  making  hay 
for  winter  fodder.  The  cattle  industry  in  the  plain  is  also 
large,  a  great  deal  of  condensed  milk  being  manufactured 
there.  Swiss  cheese  (Schweizerkiise)  and  Gruycre  have  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Butter-making  suffers  on  account 
of  the  high  price  of  cheese.     Exports  of  cheese,  condensed 


SWITZERLAND  271 

milk,  and  milch  cows  are  very  important,  but  the  import  of 
beef  cattle  is  still  larger,  amounting  to  about  50,000  head  a 
year,  with  Austria  and  Italy  as  the  main  sources  of  supply. 
A  great  many  sheep  and  goats  (for  kidskins  and  morocco 
leather)  pasture  in  the  highlands. 

Forest  industries  are  not  so  important  as  formerly.  Leaf 
trees  abound  in  the  lower  altitudes  and  firs  and  pines  in 
the  higher;  but  on  account  of  the  wanton  waste  of  timber 
for  many  years  past,  the  country  now  imports  large  supplies 
of  lumber  and  fuel.  The  Government  has  introduced  scien- 
tific forestry,  and  is  replanting  many  denuded  timber  areas 
(p.  108).  In  many  Alpine  valleys  the  Swiss  busy  themselves 
during  the  winter  making  wood  carvings  to  sell  to  tourists 
in  the  summer. 

Mining  is  not  important.  Eock  salt,  found  in  three  can- 
tons, and  building  stone,  particularly  sand  and  limestone, 
are  the  most  important  mineral  products.  A  little  iron  ore 
is  mined  in  the  Jura  ranges,  but  not  enough  for  the  iron 
industries.  An  insignificant  amount  of  anthracite  is  mined 
near  Bern  and  Freiburg,  but  the  people  must  depend  upon 
wood  and  imported  coal  for  fuel.  It  is  the  vast  develop- 
ment of  water  power,  derived  from  numberless  mountain 
torrents,  that  has  given  Switzerland  high  rank  as  an  in- 
dustrial state,  two  thirds  of  the  factories  being  run  by 
water. 

Over  a  third  of  the  people  are  employed  in  manufacturing 
industries.  Manufactures  liave  been  chiefiy  developed  in 
tlie  plain  and  among  the  Jura  mountains  (Fig.  111).  The 
most  important  centers  are  Zurich,  Bern,  and  St.  Gallen. 
The  variety  of  manufactures  is  small,  the  country  relying 
chiefiy  upon  a  few  branches  that  depend  upon  excellence 
of  workmanship.  There  is  no  desire  to  produce  a  largo 
quantity  of  cheap  stufi's,  but  manufacturers  aim  to  gain 
repute  for  the  excellence  and  fineness  of  their  goods. 
Tlieir  products,  being  comparatively  liigli  priced,  can  bear 
the  cost  of  long-distance  transportation  to  the  sea  for  ex- 


272  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

port ;  thus  Switzerland  has  established  large  trade  relations 
with  many  nations.  A  peculiarity  of  Swiss  industry  is  the 
large  amount  of  home  work.  Thousands  of  silk  hand  looms 
and  embroidery  machines  in  the  Zurich  and  St.  Gallen  dis- 
tricts turn  out  the  finest  of  products  in  the  homes  of  the 
operatives ;  straw  plaiting,  watch  and  clock  making,  tobacco 
manufactures,  and  knitting  are  also  carried  on  to  an  impor- 
tant extent  in  the  homes. 

Textile  and  metal  industries  are  most  important.  The 
great  center  of  cotton  manufactures,  which  depend  almost 
wholly  upon  machinery,  is  St.  Gallen  and  the  cantons  imme- 
diately south  of  it.  Swiss  cotton  cloths  (made  of  American 
cotton,  and  noted  for  fineness  of  texture  and  excellence  of 
dyes  and  prints)  and  raw  and  dyed  yarns  are  sent  all  over 
the  world.  The  silk  industry,  centered  in  Zurich,  Basel, 
and  their  environs,  does  not  employ  so  many  hands  as  cot- 
ton, but  the  exports  are  even  more  valuable.  Some  raw 
silk  is  produced  in  the  cantons  nearest  to  Italy,  but  most 
of  it  is  imported.  The  export  trade  suffers  from  American 
competition  (p.  lO'^).  AVoolen  manufactures  are  far  be- 
hind these  industries ;  they  figure  in  the  foreign  trade  only 
in  the  imports. 

The  leading  metal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
watches  and  machinery.  The  centers  of  watch  and  clock- 
making  are  at  Geneva,  and  in  the  Jura  Mountains  at  Le 
Locle,  La  Chaux-de-Fonds,  and  other  towns  near  Xeuchatel 
(Fig.  111).  Geneva  makes  a  great  many  watches  in  elabo- 
rately engraved  cases,  Le  Locle  turns  out  pocket  chro- 
nometers, and  the  Jura  towns  make  nickel  and  other  plain 
watches.  The  industry  long  suffered  from  the  serious 
decline  in  exports  to  the  United  States,  as  this  country 
bought  about  $3,000,000  worth  a  year  before  its  own  fac- 
tories cut  off  two  thirds  of  the  Swiss  sales  in  America. 
More  of  the  cheaper  grades  are  now  made  in  Switzerland, 
which  still  makes  hundreds  of  thousands  of  watches,  and 
exports  five  sixths  of  them.     Machinery,  made  most  exten- 


SWITZERLAND  273 

sively  at  Zurich,  Winterthur,  and  Geneva,  has  a  high  repu- 
tation and  sells  readily  in  other  countries.* 

There  are  no  navigable  rivers.  Lakes  Geneva,  Neuchatel, 
Luzern,  Zurich,  Constance,  and  a  number  of  smaller  lakes, 
embedded  among  the  hills  of  the  central  plain,  are  of  great 
importance  in  internal  trade  and  in  the  carriage  of  com- 
modities to  the  frontiers  for  exportation.  The  railroad 
system  is  unsurpassed  (Fig.  113) ;  the  railroad  mileage  in 
the  plain,  in  proportion  to  area,  is  greater  than  in  any  other 
country  of  Europe  except  Belgium.  Since  1898  passenger 
rates  have  been  extremely  cheap ;  a  second-class  ticket 
costing  $13.51  entitles  the  purchaser  to  travel  as  much  as 
he  pleases,  for  thirty  days,  over  all  SAviss  railroads  and  on 
the  lake  steamers.  Fine  wagon  roads  follow  all  the  valleys 
and  cross  the  three  important  passes — Great  St.  Bernard, 
St.  Gotthard,  and  Simplon,  and  several  of  the  minor  routes 
over  the  mountains.  The  connections  with  the  leading 
seaports,  both  of  north  and  south  Europe,  are  so  excellent 
that  all  of  them,  from  Amsterdam  to  Marseilles  and  Genoa, 
are  utilized  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  Swiss  foreign 
trade.  Most  of  the  wheat  and  flour  from  the  United  States 
enters  at  Marseilles,  and  is  forwarded  by  rail  to  (ieneva. 
Coal  and  iron  from  Germany  are  sent  up  the  Rhine  by  boat 
and  rail. 

The  neighbors  of  Switzerland  figure  most  largely  in  her 
foreign  trade.  It  is  to  the  advantage  of  this  land  without 
seaports  that  she  has  on  her  borders  great  trading  nations 
like  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Austria-Hungary.  They 
buy  large  amounts  of  her  superior  manufactures,  and  sell 
her  many  of   the  manufacturing   and  food   materials  she 


*  Tlie  niakiiifj  of  straw  braid  for  hats  (Fig.  Ill)  employs  70.000 
worknien  ;  tlio  industry  has  strong  coinpc'tilion  in  Chinese  and  Jjipa- 
nese  braid.  Chemicals,  wood  engravings  (from  the  liernese  Oberlaiul), 
leather  goods,  and  scientific;  instruments  are  exi)orted  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Flo\ir  mills,  breweries,  pottery  and  glassworks,  and  jewelry 
factories  prodnce  mainly  f<»r  the  InHiie  trade. 
1« 


274 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


lacks.  The  largest  imports  are  grain,  cattle,  and  other 
food  supplies.  Italy  and  the  Orient  send  raw  silk,  which 
is  next  in  importance.     As  Switzerland  has  no  gold  and 


7X^ 


6  //% 


A^. 


Schaffhaysin  >~</s— XvN        o'/U 

f  ^if~<i.^-^L\J>/Fnedrichshafen 


Pontarlier*— ^  ''^ 


g    .,        \VThun     r^ 


^iothkreuz 

Sar>jansp 
Linththal 


Altorf 


Chur 


VH 


^ 


'      TumruX 
Airolo 

,^  jr        ?  'V.J3eUi 

Doino  J'OsSbla\>:J 

ihlj^  Jfiy  RAILROAD  CONNECTrONS 

~.^    ,'fA^      t\;/r\  SCALE,  i:J 

I  -IF     S/fc  ^X*^  .  SCALE  01    ....^^^ 

I     T     A     L^    Y    m  j'fjjp         ,j>J^Como  o      lu      20 ]  30     40     50 


SWITZEKLAXD'S 


— •" 


Fig.  113.— Five  railroads  crossing  the  Jura  Mountains  connect  with  through  lines  to 
the  Atlantic  and  North  Sea  ports  of  Franco,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. The  route  from  France  to  Austria  through  Basel  and  Zurich  passes 
through  the  Arlberg  tunnel,  six  and  a  half  miles  long  ;  the  greatest  international 
route  passes  via  Basel  and  Luzern  through  the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel,  nine  and  a 
quarter  miles  long,  to  Milan  and  Genoa  ;  the  Simplon  tunnel,  to  be  twelve  and  a 
half  miles  long,  now  building  (1901),  will  give  Paris  the  most  direct  communica- 
tion with  Milan,  the  largest  center  of  Italian  trade.  Observe  the  routes  from  all 
the  frontiers  leading  to  the  ports  and  commercial  centers  of  the  surrounding 
countries. 

Geneva,  standing  at  the  point  where  the  Rhone  River  leaves  Lake  Geneva,  is  a 
distributing  and  forwarding  city  ;  the  convergence  of  railroads  at  Basel  make  it 
a  very  important  commercial  center  and  forwarding  point ;  Zurich  is  the  largest, 
most  beautiful,  and  industrially  active  city. 


silver  mines,  the  quantities  of  precious  metals  imported  for 
coinage  and  for  jewelry  and  other  manufacturing  purposes 
sometimes  surpass  in  value  the  large  supplies  of  coal  pur- 
chased abroad.  Germany  sells  to  Switzerland  coal,  coke, 
raw  and  manufactured  iron,  sugar  and  otlier  foodstuffs, 
machinery,  books,  and  many  other  supplies  in  such  euor- 


SWITZERLAND  275 

mous  quantities  that  nearly  a  third  of  the  total  imports 
come  from  that  country.  Raw  cotton,  wheat,  and  petro- 
leum comprise  about  two  thirds  of  the  value  of  imports 
from  the  United  States. 

Nearly  all  the  exports  are  manufactures.  Silk  goods 
head  the  list ;  after  them  come  cotton  yarns,  cotton  cloths, 
which  are  sent  wherever  there  is  a  demand  for  the  finer 
grades  of  white  and  colored  cottons  and  prints ;  books, 
engravings,  embroideries,  watches,  and  watch  movements  ; 
machinery,  much  of  it  for  sjDinning  and  weaving ;  milch 
cows,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk.  I3utter,  wood  carvings, 
and  straw  wares  have  a  subordinate  part  in  the  exjjorts. 
Cotton  embroideries,  the  largest  export  to  the  United 
States,  are  worth  more  than  double  the  raw  cotton  that 
Switzerland  buys  in  this  country.  Silk  goods,  cheese, 
aniline  dyes,  and  watches  are  also  important  exports  to  the 
United  States. 

Switzerland's  great  advantages  are  water  power,  excellent 
manufactures,  near-by  markets  in  which  to  purchase  raw  and 
sell  manufactured  products,  and  extensive  communications 
with  seaports.  These  advantages  serve  to  counterbalance 
distance  from  the  sea,  poverty  in  coal  and  iron,  and  inade- 
quate liome  supplies  of  food.  The  Alpine  scenery  also  is  a 
money-making  resource  that  goes  far  towards  supplying 
food  and  manufacturing  materials  that  must  be  purchased 
from  other  countries. 

Scenery  is  a  large  source  of  wealth.  Millions  of  tourists 
visit  Switzerland  to  enjoy  its  incomparable  mountain  land- 
scapes, waterfalls,  and  glaciers.  It  was  estimated  that  in 
1898  they  left  $38,000,000  in  the  country.  Most  of  the 
tourists  come  in  excursion  parties  from  Western  and  Cen- 
tral Europe.  They  remain  only  a  short  time,  but  tlieir 
numbers  are  so  large  that  the  aggregate  expenditure  is 
enormous.  However,  as  Switzerland  imports  nearly  all  the 
supplies  it  sells  to  tourists,  a  great  deal  of  the  money 
received  is  paid  out. 


270 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


STATISTICS   FOR   SWITZERLAND 

Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1885-'86.  1891-"9G. 

Iinpoils 149.0  189.5 

Exports 134.0  140.0 


1899. 
224.4 
153.6 


Share  of  Other  Countries  in  the  Trade,  1899  (Percentages) 


Im-  Ex- 
ports, ports. 

Germany 29.70  24.95 

Austria- 11  ungtiry  ..     6.59  5.71 

France 18.43  12.10 

Italy 16.46  5.27 

Great  Britain 4.85  20.85 


Im-  Ex- 
ports, ports. 

Africa 1.53  .80 

Asia 3.65  3.84 

United  States 5.32  11.52 

Australia 87  .41 


Population  (1899),  3,144,741. 

Tlie   monetary  standard  is  gold  and   silver,  with  the 
franc  as  the  unit  of  coinage.     Metric  weights  and  measures. 


CHAPTEE   XXVI 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

No  other  large  European  nation  has  such  a  mixture  of  races 
as  Austria-Hungary.  The  Germans  are  the  largest  element ; 
many  languages  are  spoken,  the  predominant  tongues  being 
German  in  Austria,  and  Magyar  in  Hungary.  Political 
antagonism,  growing  out  of  racial  differences,  sometimes 
disturbs  business.  Strife,  in  recent  years,  between  the 
Czech  and  German  nationalities  in  Bohemia,  the  most 
industrial  province,  has  resulted,  for  example,  in  the  re- 
fusal of  many  Czechs  to  trade  witli  German  merchants  or 
to  buy  German  goods. 

Mountains  and  highlands  wall  in  most  of  the  empire,  and 
inclose  the  great  low  plain  of  Hungary.  The  Galician  low- 
land, however,  borders  Eussia  ;  and  on  the  southwest  there 
are  465  miles  of  coasts  washed  by  the  Adriatic.  Sharp 
contrasts  in  topography  help  to  produce  wide  variations  in 
climate,  arctic  conditions  prevailing  on  the  highest  moun- 
tains, Atlantic  influences,  which  penetrate  even  to  the 
Tyrol  valleys,  modifying  summer  heat  and  winter  cold  in 
the  west.  The  flat  pusztas,  or  plains  of  Hungary,  have  the 
continental  climate,  with  extremely  hot  summers  and  severe 
winters;  the  Adriatic  provinces  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia 
have  the  mild  winters  and  dry  summers  of  other  Mediter- 
ranean lands.  Only  the  Alps  have  large  rainfall ;  the 
plains  of  Hungary  are  liable  to  droughts ;  therefore  the 
quantity  of  wheat  produced  varies  enormously. 

River  valleys,  mountain  passes,  and  the  short  seacoast 
give  easy  access  to  other  lands.     In  favorable  stages  df  tlm 

277 


278  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

water  the  Elbe  is  navigable  from  above  Prague,  in  Bohemia, 
to  Hamburg  (Fig.  90).  The  valleys  of  the  Morava  and 
Oder  rivers  open  a  passage  from  Vienna  to  German  Silesia 
(the  Moravian  Gate,  p.  23).  The  Semmering  pass  and 
tunnel,  southwest  of  Vienna,  are  the  gateway  through  the 
mountains  to  Trieste,  Venice,  and  Genoa.  Vessels  ascend 
the  Danube  into  Germany,  and  the  improvement  in  navi- 
gation at  the  Iron  Gate,  on  the  lower  Danube,  has  opened 
a  waterway  from  Vienna  to  all  the  Black  Sea  countries. 
A  railroad  over  the  Brenner  Pass  leads  north  into  Germany 
and  south  into  Italy ;  not  far  away  is  the  Arlberg  tunnel, 
through  which  Austrian  trains  reach  Paris,  Geneva,  and 
Marseilles  (Fig.  118). 

The  Danube  Eiver  system  affords  great  facilities  for 
inland  navigation  (Fig.  118).  The  conspicuous  service 
which  the  Danube  renders  is  to  connect  southeastern  with 
central  Europe.  Alhough  the  second  largest  river  of 
Europe,  it  is  inferior  to  the  Ehine  for  transportation,  be- 
cause its  outlet  is  on  an  inland  sea  far  from  great  inter- 
national centers  of  trade. 

The  empire  is  pre-eminently  agricultural.  Three  fifths 
of  the  entire  area  is  devoted  to  field  crops,  pasturage,  and 
hay  (Fig.  114),  and  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  people  till 


y-WINE    1.1 

UNPRODUCTIVE 

ARABLE  LAND  38.8 

HAY  AND  GRAZING  23.9 

FOREST   30.3 

Fig.  114.— Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Austria-Hungary. 
Practically  all  the  land  is  utilized  except  the  snow  mountains,  marshes  along  the 
Hungarian  rivers,  and  the  barren  Karst.  a  limestone  cave  district  back  of  Trieste, 
denuded  of  its  timber  and  hence  stripped  of  its  soil  by  floods. 

the  soil  or  raise  stock.  Owing,  however,  to  high  freight 
rates  and  the  competition  of  other  grain-raising  countries, 
which  has  reduced  the  price  of  grain,  more  and  more  of 
the  population  are  abandoning  agriculture  for  industries 
and  commerce.  Xearly  all  the  arable  lands  in  Austria  are 
now  cultivated,  but  millions  of  acres  on  the  wide,  flat  plains 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


270 


of  Hungary  still  serve  only  for  pasturage  (Fig.  115),  and  the 
yield  of  cereals  per  acre  is  far  less  than  in  western  Euroj)e. 
Wheat  is  raised  in  most  parts  of  the  empire,  but  thrives 
best  in  the  alluvial  lands  of  Hungary,  which  are  enriched 
by  the  floods  of  the  Danube  and  its  tributaries,  making  the 


c 

—                ■) 1__ 45 

'^    Vf.KKlLTLRK 

IN 

AlSTlUArHlXGARV 

SCALE,   1  114,500,000 
SCALE  OF  MILES 

50         100        150       200 
^m   Largest  Forest  Regi 


Fig.  115. 


plain  one  of  the  great  granaries  of  the  world  (Fig.  36).  More 
than  enough  wheat  is  raised  for  homo  consumption,  and  in 
good  crop  years  a  large  quantity  is  exported  to  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  empire  leads  Europe  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  flour,  Budapest  being  the  largest  milling  center, 
Avhile  mills  are  scattered  all  over  the  wheat-growing  districts, 
mainly  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  The  best  mechanical 
inventions  are  used  in  the  mills ;  wheat  is  classified  for 
milling  in  seven  grades,  the  uniformity  of  whose  product 
contributes  largely  to  the  success  of  Hungarian  flour, 
which  brings  a  high  price  abroad. 


2S0  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Eye  is  raised  in  the  cooler  mountain  districts ;  rye  flour 
is  the  chief  import  of  breadstuffs,  selling  readily,  because 
large  numbers  of  the  working  classes  are  too  poor  to  eat 
wheat.  Maize,  a  large  crop  in  the  south,  thriving  even  in 
the  Tyrol,  is  augmented  by  imports  from  the  United  States 
and  Eumania.  Enormous  crops  of  oats  are  grown  in  the 
north  of  Austria  and  in  Hungary.  Flax  and  hemp  are, 
however,  losing  ground,  on  account  of  Eussia's  superiority 
in  these  fibers.* 

Wine  culture  is  one  of  the  large  resources  (Fig.  115).  It 
is  distributed  through  the  southern  half  of  the  empire, 
Hungary,  whose  wines  are  among  the  most  esteemed  in  the 
world,  making  nearly  half  the  output.  Tokay  is  the  best 
known  Hungarian  wine  and  the  leading  export,  the  Govern- 
ment encouraging  the  industry  by  maintaining  schools  of 
instruction  in  grape-growing  and  wine-making.  Much 
Italian  wine  has  been  imported  since  the  phylloxera  ravaged 
the  vines;  imports  still  exceed  the  exports. 

A  fourth  of  the  area  is  in  pastures.  More  horses  are 
raised  than  in  any  part  of  Europe  except  in  Eussia.     Great 

*  The  empire  is  one  of  the  large  tobacco-raising  countries,  Hun- 
gary producing  nearly  half  the  crop.  Tobacco,  salt,  and  gunpowder 
are  Government  monopolies,  their  importation,  except  by  the  state, 
being  prohibited.  Bohemia  and  some  other  regions  make  a  great  deal 
more  beet  sugar  (Fig.  44)  than  the  country  can  consume ;  sugar  is  the 
largest  export,  England  taking  four  fifths  of  the  foreign  sales ;  the 
state  pays  a  bounty  of  sixty  to  ninety  cents  for  every  220  pounds  pro- 
duced. Bohemia  supj)lies  four  fifths  of  the  hop  crop.  Brewery  inter- 
ests in  all  countries  import  more  or  less  Bohemian  malt  or  hops,  whose 
superior  quality  is  due  to  peculiarly  favorable  soil,  climate,  and  methods 
of  cultivation.  Beer  production  has  increased  in  the  past  half  century 
about  sevenfold,  the  most  famous  products  coming  from  Bohemia  and 
Vienna.  Pilsen  and  Vienna  beers  are  sent  all  over  the  world.  Great 
crops  of  potatoes  are  raised,  Austria  producing  far  more  than  Hungary. 
Fruit  raising  is  a  large  industry,  the  apple  and  pear  thriving  in  the 
north  ;  Hungary  produces  prunes,  from  which  brandy  is  made ;  llie 
southern  provinces  make  olive  oil  and  raise  the  fig,  the  olive,  citrus 
fruits,  and  the  almond  nut. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  281 

herds  of  Huugarian  horses  graze  on  the  treeless^  grassy 
steppes.  Hungary  is  also  famous  for  fine  mules.  Hungary 
and  Galicia  raise  the  most  stall-fed  cattle  for  market,  many 
of  which  are  sold  in  Switzerland  ;  Alpine  cattle,  fed  in  the 
high  pastures,  as  in  Switzerland,  are  kept  for  dairying. 
Sheep  have  declined  with  the  large  importations  of  Aus- 
tralian and  South  American  wool.  Poultry  raising  has 
enormous  extent  in  the  dry,  limestone  areas.  Two  billion 
eggs  a  year  are  exported  to  other  European  lands. 

Forests  are  a  large  source  of  wealth  (Fig.  115).  Most  of 
the  wood  products  are  now  derived  from  the  Carpathian 
forests  and  Bohemia  (p.  114).  A  great  deal  of  lumber  and 
staves  for  making  wine  and  beer  casks  are  sent  to  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  large  (Fig.  IIG).  Mining  is  not 
developed  in  proportion  to  the  great  mineral  resources. 
The  coal  production,  half  of  which  is  taken  from  the  rich 
Bohemian  mines,  is  not  quite  equal  to  the  demand  ;  tlie 
next  largest  sources  of  coal  are  Moravia  to  the  north  and 
Styria  to  the  south  of  the  Vienna  industrial  district  (Fig. 
58).  Iron  ores  are  specially  pure  in  Styria  and  Carinthia 
around  Gratz  and  Eisenerz,  where  there  is  a  mountain  of 
pure  iron  ore ;  unfortunately,  the  best  ores  are  nearer  sup- 
plies of  lignite  than  of  coal,  the  fine  Styrian  ores  being 
worked  only  with  charcoal,  while  the  poorer  ores  around 
Steyr  are  fused  with  coal. 

Manufactures  are  of  subordinate  importance  (l^'ig.  IKJ). 
The  reasons  are  the  slow  introduction  of  new  macliinery, 
high  freight  rates,  heavy  taxes  on  manufactures,  the  situation 
of  industrial  centers  remote  from  the  ocean,  and  race  ani- 
mosities. As  the  largest  industrial  development  is  in  the 
nortliwest  and  north,  the  greatest  density  of  population  is 
naturally  there  (Fig.  117),  wbile  agriculture  predominates 
in  the  east  and  commerce  in  the  maritime  provinces;  but 
metal,  macliine,  leatlior,  and  otlier  industries  are  growing  in 
Hungary.     Textiles  are  most  largely  grouped  on  tlie  north- 


282 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


ern  coal  field  at  Reichenberg,  Pilsen,  Briinn,  Troppau,  and 
other  towns.  These  manufactures,  though  most  important 
of  all,  do  not  make  enough  cottons  for  the  home  demand. 


IMHSTRIES  A>D 
,.^,      MINERAL  PRODICTS 
OF  AISTRIA-HINGARY 


Fig.  116. — The  lead  mines  of  Bleibnrt;  are  the  richest  in  Europe.  The  quicksilver 
mines  at  Idria  are  surpassed  in  Europe  only  by  the  Spanish  mines  at  Almaden 
(p.  138).  The  empire  excels  all  other  European  countries  in  salt  resources,  though 
not  in  the  quantity  produced  (p.  138t.  The  most  remarkable  development  is  in 
the  mines  of  Wieliczka-Bochnia,  in  Galicia,  where  the  mass  of  rock  salt  is  300 
miles  long  and  1,200  feet  thick.  Thirty  miles  of  galleries  have  been  dug  into  this 
mass,  and  mining  villages  stand  far  below  the  surface.  Petroleum  is  produced  in 
Galicia.  but  so  much  cheap  Russian  kerosene  is  imjiorted  that  small  use  is  made 
of  the  local  oil  resources.  The  map  shows  the  distribution  of  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  none  of  which  is  very  important. 

Enormous  quantities  of  grain  and  other  freight  are  carried  on  the  Theiss,  Dravc, 
and  Save,  tributaries  of  the  Danube.  Kcw  canals  are  being  dug  (1901)  between 
the  Theise  and  Danube  and  the  Drave  and  Save  to  sliorten  the  distance  by  water 
to  Budapest  and  Vienna. 


The  woolen  mills  export  cloths,  but  import  large  quantities 
of  worsted  yarns.  Large  carpet  manufactures  and  the  silk 
industry  have  their  principal  seat  in  Vienna.  The  metal 
industries  are  centered  mainly  at  Steyr,  Gratz,  and  Klagen- 


A  USTRIA-HUNGAR  Y 


283 


flirt,  ilachinery,  tools,  and  railroad  materials  are  large 
products  of  Vienna,  Gratz,  Prague,  and  Brimn.  The  famous 
Bohemian  glass  is  made  near  forests  that  supply  fuel,  pot- 
ash, the  silica  and  "coloring  metals,"  which  give  it  dis- 
tinctive qualities,  the  mountain  regions  of  northwest  Bo- 
hemia having  half  the  glass  factories  of  the  empire,  with 
the  largest  centers  at  Pilsen  and  Eger.  The  leather  in- 
dustry is   most   highly  developed  in  Vienna,  Prague,  and 


Fig.  117. — Density  of  population  in  Austria-IIungart. 
The  most  populous  area  is  the  district  around  Vienna,  where  tlie  largest  metal-work- 
ing and  general  manufacturing  interests  of  the  empire  are  centered.  The  ])oi)ula- 
tion  is  also  very  dense  farther  north,  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  where  agriculture 
is  subordinate  and  most  of  the  poi)ulation  worli  in  the  factories  and  sliops.  The 
Galician  plain  is  more  densely  peo|)led  than  that  of  Hungary  because  farming 
and  stoclc-raising  are  supplemented  tliere  to  a  greater  extent  by  mining  and  manu- 
facturing. 


the  Tyrol.  It  includes  large  glove  manufactures.  Sheep 
and  lambskins  come  mainly  from  Hungary  ;  goatskins  from 
tlie  Biilkans  and  Mediterranean  countries.  Austrian  gloves 
are  among  the  large  exports.* 

*  Vienna,  I'rague,  and  Bu(lai)f'st  arc  noted   for  fine  cabinet  work 
and  wood-turning ;  Austrian  bent  furniture  and  wooden  toy.s  are  large 


284 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Railroads  are  less  developed  than  in  most  European  coun- 
tries (Fig.  118).  The  railroad  mileage  is  only  a  third  as 
large  as  tliat  of  France,  All  railroads  converge  upon  Vienna 
and  Budapest ;  four  fifths  of  the  ocean  freight  is  trans- 


PiG.  118. — Vienna,  the  central  point  of  trade  between  the  upper  and  lower  Danube 
and  between  east  Germany  and  the  Adriatic,  is  the  greatest  commercial  and  indus- 
trial city  of  the  empire.  Budapest,  in  the  heart  of  the  country  and  at  the  lowest 
place  on  the  Danube  where  the  river  might  be  easily  bridged,  is  the  gateway 
of  Hungarian  trade.  Prague  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  navigable  Moldau-Elbe.  at 
the  natural  meeting  point  of  all  trade  routes  in  Bohemia,  and  is  therefore  the  col- 
lecting and  distributing  point  for  the  coal,  textile,  glass,  hardware,  and  other 
manufacturing  interests  of  that  region.  Lemberg  and  Cracow  are  the  centers  of 
Galician  industries  and  trade  relating  mainly  to  grain,  cattle,  salt,  and  petroleum. 
At  Pressburg  is  the  largest  dynamite  factory  in  Europe. 

ported  by  the  rail  routes,  because  the  rivers  do  not  lead  to 
the  seaports.     Commerce  with  the  Levant  takes  Danube 


exports ;  a  great  deal  of  paper  is  made  in  the  Vienna  manufacturing 
district ;  the  largest  distilling  interests  are  in  Gulicia  and  Hungary ; 
the  cordial  maraschino  is  a  product  of  Dalmatia  (Adriatic  coast).  Aus- 
tria excels  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  instruments,  carriages,  and 
many  branches  of  hardware  ;  the  chemicals  produced  do  not  fill  the 
home  demand ;  many  wooden  vessels  for  the  fisheries  and  rivers  are 
built  in  the  .shipyards  of  Vienna,  Trieste,  Pola,  and  Zara.  Compare  Fig. 
116  with  117  to  note  the  relations  between  the  distribution  of  indus- 
tries and  density  of  population. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  2S5 

steamers  to  the  Black  Sea.  International  routes  through 
the  Balkans  lead  from  Belgrade  to  Constantinople  and 
Salonica  on  the  ^Egean  Sea.  The  merchant  marine  is  one 
of  the  smallest  in  Europe  (p.  48),  most  of  the  sea  trade 
being  through  Trieste,  the  port  of  Austria,  and  Fiume,  the 
port  of  Hungary.  Trieste,  the  largest  seaport,  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Austrian  Lloyd,  a  maritime  company,  whose 
steamers  ply  chiefly  to  Oriental  countries  and  Mediterra- 
nean ports.  Two  lines  make  regular  sailings  to  the  United 
States.  Fiume  is  the  outlet  for  a  great  deal  of  the  wheat 
of  Hungary.  Cattaro  (Fig.  110)  is  a  better  harbor  than 
either  Trieste  or  Fiume,  but  its  situation  is  not  convenient 
for  trade.  English  and  Italian  vessels  take  an  important 
part  in  the  carrying  trade,  and  the  ports  of  northwest  Eu- 
rope receive  and  dispatch  considerable  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce. 

Cotton  and  wool  fibers,  yarn,  and  cloth  are  the  largest 
imports.  Coffee,  coal,  metals,  and  machinery  arc  also  large 
purchases.  Germany  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  exj^orts. 
Inlying  cereals  and  machinery.  The  trade  with  Germany 
tends,  however,  to  diminish,  as  Germany  can  buy  meat 
products  and  grain  to  equal  advantage  from  America  and 
Russia.  The  trade  with  Eussia  is  somewhat  restricted  by 
the  fact  that  both  countries  are  large  producers  of  cereals, 
cattle,  and  timber.  A])out  four  sevenths  of  the  foreign  pur- 
chases are  raw  or  partly  manufactured  materials,  and  the 
1)alance  is  manufactures.  Cotton,  maize,  hog  products,  and 
pig  iron  are  the  largest  imports  from  the  United  States,  but 
Egypt  supplies  two  tliirds  of  the  cotton. 

Sugar,  timber,  cattle,  wheat,  leather  goods,  eggs,  coal, 
and  glass  are  the  largest  exports.  Italy  depends  cliieily 
upon  Austria  for  its  coal  sui)ply.  In  the  nuirkets  of  ibe 
Levant,  Austria-Hungary  disputes  the  first  place  with  Eng- 
land. She  supplies  Servia  and  Rumania  with  a  large  part 
of  their  imi)orts,  and  controls  the  foreign  tnide  of  Bulga- 
ria.    Slie  buys  from  tlie  United  States  about  five  times  the 


286  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

value  of  the  commodities  she  sells  here.  The  chief  exports 
to  this  country  are  glassware,  gloves,  sugar,  porcelain  and 
pottery,  musical  instruments,  and  beer. 

Austria-Himgary  is  a  land  of  transition  from  industrial 
west  Europe  to  agricultural  east  Europe.  The  internal  trade 
illustrates  this  fact,  most  of  the  manufactures  being  derived 
from  the  west  of  the  empire,  and  foodstuffs  and  timber  from 
the  east.  When  more  coal  is  mined  and  the  volume  of 
manufactures  is  greater  the  country  will  not  draw  so 
largely  as  at  present  upon  supplies  from  Germany  and 
other  sources.  The  empire  is  tlie  only  large  European  state 
that  has  no  possessions  outside  of  Europe.* 

Average  Annual  Tkade  of  Austria-Hungary  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1876-'80. 

Imports 234.0 

Exports 273.0 

Imports  from  Leading  Countries  in  1899  (General  Commerce,  in 
Million  Dollars)  + 


880-'85. 

1891-"95. 

1809. 

257.5 

277.0 

321.1 

302.0 

321.0 

372.3 

Germany. 

England. 

United  States. 

Italy. 

France. 

Switzerland 

121.5 

30.0 

25.3 

24.2 

11.2 

11.2 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries  in  1899  (General  Commerce,  in 
Million  Dollars) 

Germany.         England.         Italy.         Switzerland.         France.        United  States. 
199.5  33.5  29.1  14.4  12.1  6.5 

*  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  nominally  belonging  to  Turkey,  but, 
occupied  and  administered  by  Austria-Hungary  since  1878,  have  made 
much  progress  under  the  new  regime,  which  has  built  good  highways 
and  narrow-gauge  railroads  and  begun  the  development  of  coal  mining 
and  manufactures.  The  trade  is  with  Austria-Hungary,  the  exports 
being  mainly  oak  timber,  plums,  and  cattle. 

f  General  commerce  =  gross  imports  or  exports.  Special  com- 
merce =  imports  for  home  consumption  or  exports  of  native  produce 
and  manufactures.  The  statistics  in  this  book  usually  relate  to  special 
qoramerce, 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  287 

Population,  with  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (1898),  46,- 
335,687. 

The  standard  coinage  is  the  crown,  based  on  the  gokl 
standard  and  worth  about  20^  cents.  Twenty-crown  gokl 
2)iece  =  14.06.  Metric  systems  of  weights  and  measures 
are  legal,  but  the  old  standards  are  often  employed. 


CHAPTEE  XXVII^ 

ITALY 

Nature  made  Italy  an  agricultural  and  commercial  coun- 
try. Its  industries  can  not  rank  with  those  of  great  manu- 
facturing nations,  because  it  has  no  coal,  but  it  is  fitted, 
like  China,  to  support  a  great  farming  population,  because 
it  produces  all  the  various  crops  of  Europe,  and  many  of 
those  of  tropical  lands,  under  a  climate  so  genial  that  two 
or  three  harvests  may  be  gathered  every  year.  Its  position 
also  adapts  it  for  large  sea  trade,  because  it  is  part  of  the 
shortest  route  from  west  and  central  Europe  to  the  Levant 
and  eastern  countries.  The  ports  of  no  other  land  can 
communicate  so  easily  with  the  coasts  washed  by  the  Med- 
iterranean and  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans.  On  the 
land  side  it  has  close  and  quick  connections  with  the  rest 
of  Europe.  Though  separated  from  the  northern  lands  by 
the  Alps,  they  are  not  a  barrier  to  Italy's  commerce ;  four 
lines  of  railroad  cross  the  mountains ;  another  will  be  added 
upon  the  completion  of  the  Simplon  tunnel  (Fig.  113). 

Most  of  the  important  towns  are  seaports.  As  Italy  has  the 
sea  on  three  sides  and  is  in  the  center  of  the  most  impor- 
tant inland  sea  in  the  world,  it  is  natural  that  many  of  the 
inhabitants  should  be  sailors,  and  the  coast  towns  important 
in  sea  trade.  The  chief  harbors  are  Genoa,  Naples,  Venice, 
Leghorn,  Messina,  and  Palermo  (Fig.  119).  Enormous  sums 
have  been  expended  in  improving  these  and  other  harbors. 
All  the  ports  receive  heavier  and  bulkier  freight  than  they 
ship,  because  they  bring  in  grain,  coal,  iron,  timber,  and 
other  heavy  commodities,  while  they  ship  olive  oil,  wine, 
straw  goods,  fruits,  and  other  things  of  larger  value,  in  pro- 


ITALY 

MOST   IMPORTANT 

RAILROADS  ASD 

SEAPORTS. 


®   Chief  Sea2)orts 
•  Other  Seaports 


Fig.  119.— Genoa  is  the  harbor  nearest  to  Switzerland  and  southeas^t  (Jerinany  ma  the 
St.  Gotthard  tunnel;  it<tJierefore  compctrs  witii  Marseilles  for  nortliiTii  tra<le:  it 
is  also  the  natural  outlet  of  the  Lonibanlv  industrial  distriet.  The  ojjenini;  of  the 
Suez  Oanal  (1870)  and  of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  (1871)  made  a  new  era  for  (Jenoa, 
which  has  the  lion's  share  of  Italy's  sea  trade.  /4>esliorn.  the  port  of  Florence, 
suffers  from  proximity  to  Genoa;  the  wines  of  tne  nortli  and  Carrara siiai:l)le  are 
amonLT  its  shipments.  Piombmo  receives-the  iron  ore  of  Elba  island.  >Iost  of 
the  tra<le  of  Civita  \'eeehia.  thC'port  of  Rome,  is  coal  and  pif;  iron  for  the  interior. 
Naples,  with  ."iOO.iKK)  inhabitants,  needs  to  import  many  articles  for  local  consump- 
tion :  many  vessels  in  the  Genoa  trade  call  at  Naples.  At  liriudisi  overland 
freiirht  and  passengers  take  the  sea  route  for  the  Orient.  Barlctla  exports  the 
C(!reals.  wines,  oil.  and  fruits  of^ha  southeast.  Ancona  is.  next  to  Venice,  the 
best  Adriatic  harbor.  Venice  is  the  outlet  for  the  east  lialf  of  the  Lombardy 
plain  ;  here  trrain  is  stored  in  air-fit,dit  i)its  to  await  shipment  ;  its  trade  is  only 
about  one  fifth  that  of  Genoa.  Palfurijio  is  the  largest  city  and  the  chief  port  of 
Sicily.  M(fssina  commands  the  trade'^across  the  strait  between  Sicily  and  the 
maiiiland.  Catania,  Lic.-ita.  and  I'orto  Empedocle  (the  harbor  of  (lirirenli.  which 
has  the  largest  sulphur  mines  in  tli<-  worldx'xport  sulphur  and  citrus  fruits.  Mar- 
sala is  a  wine  port  for  the  famous  vineyards  around  it. 

Milan  is  the  largest  commercial  and  industrial  center  of  the  kingdom.  Most 
of  the  roads  across  the  Alps  converge  upon  the- city.  Turin  is  on  the  route  to 
France  ria  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  and  has  very  large  trading  and  nuinufacluring 
interests. 

19  2«9 


290 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


portion  to  weight  and  bulk,  than  the  imports ;  the  result 
is  tliat  many  vessels  landing  cargoes  depart  in  ballast. 

The  climate  is  dry  and  warm.    The  mountains  encircling 
the  Lombardy  plain  ward  off  the  west  and  south  winds,  so 


Fig.  120. 


that  the  fields  would  not  receive  all  the  moisture  they 
require  if  they  were  not  irrigated ;  the  largest  rainfall  in 
the  south  occurs  in  the  fall  and  winter  instead  of  in  the 


ITALY 


291 


growing  season  ;  irrigation  is,  therefore,  employed  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  Lombardy  plain  has  greater 
extremes  of  temperature  than  the  peninsula,  which  is 
imbedded  between  warm  seas.  The  greatest  drawback  is 
malaria,  that  pervades  the  valley  of  the  Po,  the  swampy 
lands  of  the  Maremma,  the  Campagna,  the  Pontine  Marshes, 
and  some  other  regions  (Fig.  120). 


Fig.  121. — The  population  is  more  dense  than  in  any  otlier  large  state  of  Euroi)c.  It 
increaHCS  less  rapidly,  however,  than  in  Entrland,  Kiissiii,  mid  (icrniany.  The 
north  surpasses  the  peninsula  botli  in  density  of  ])()puliitioii  and  in  the  well-being 
of  its  inliahitants.  The  firciit  industrial  districts  around  Milan  aiul  Turin  (Lom- 
bardy; and  Florence  (Tuscany)  allrait  nianythousands  of  arlisans. 


292  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  largest  industrial  and  agricultural  development  is  in 
the  north  (Fig.  130).  The  reason  is  evident  when  natural 
conditions  are  studied.  The  largest  and  richest  farming 
area  is  the  Lombardy  plain,  lying  within  the  bend  formed 
by  the  Alps  as  they  circle  southward  to  join  the  Apennines. 
It  is  the  basin  of  the  Po  Eiver,  fed  by  many  Alpine  streams, 
which  irrigate  the  rice  and  other  crops.  The  Po  and  its 
tributaries  afford  about  600  miles  of  navigation,  while  the 
more  southern  rivers  have  little  utility,  except  the  Arno, 
navigable  to  Florence,  and  the  Tiber,  to  Eome.  The  nortli 
is  much  nearer  the  large  trading  nations  than  the  south ; 
farming  and  manufacturing  are  easier  in  the  plain  than  in 
the  mountainous  peninsula.  These  facts  have  helped  to 
give  the  north  a  more  dense  population  and  to  make  busi- 
ness of  all  kinds  more  active  there  (Fig.  121). 

Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  condition  (Fig.  122).  Most 
of  the  land,  which  is  in  the  hands  of  large  proprietors,  is 
leased  to  small  tenants,  who,  after  paying  all  charges,  have 


ARABLE  LAND  39.9 

WINE 

HAY  AND  MEADOW  25 

FOREST  15.7 

UNPRODUCTIVE 

Fig.  122.— Subdivisions  of  the  soil  in  Italy. 

but  a  scanty  living.  Progress  is  retarded  by  the  fact  that 
nonresident  owners  hold  so  much  of  the  farm  lands,  and,  as 
in  Ireland,  many  of  the  peasantry  seek  to  better  their  con- 
dition by  emigration ;  about  200,000  a  year  pass  through 
Genoa  or  other  ports  on  their  way  to  South  America  or  the 
United  States  ;  many  thousands,  also,  eke  out  their  income 
by  working  as  farm  hands  or  laborers  in  neighboring  coun- 
tries for  several  months  every  year.  While  more  than  a 
third  of  the  land  is  tilled,  millions  of  acres  are  unpro- 
ductive which,  if  drained,  would  yield  large  crops  and  de- 
crease the  purchases  of  food  in  foreign  lands.* 

*  Winter  wheat,  though  widely  grown,  is  in  insufficient  supply  ; 
large  quantities  are  imported  from  Russia  and  Hungary  for  bread  an>l 
alimentary  pastes.     Maize,  raised  everywhere,  is  a  particularly  large 


ITALY  293 

Flax  and  hemp  are  large  crops  in  the  north,  consider- 
able hemp  being  exported.  Excellent  cotton  is  raised  in 
the  south  and  in  Sicily,  but  the  mills  depend  chiefly  upon 
foreign  supplies.  Tobacco,  a  Government  monopoly,  is  not 
grown  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  much  tobacco  is  imported 
from  the  United  States. 

Wine,  olives,  and  citrus  fruits  are  the  staples  of  agricul- 
tural trade  (Fig.  120).  The  uniform  warmth  and  dry  weather 
needed  by  the  vine  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Italy,  hence 
the  grape  is  cultivated  everywhere,  Italy  being  the  second 
largest  producer  of  wine  (p.  69).  The  proportion  of  wine 
lands  to  the  total  area  is  greater  in  Italy  than  in  France. 
The  quality  has  much  improved  in  recent  years,  and  the 
exports  are  very  large,  Chianti,  grown  near  Florence,  Asti 
in  the  northwest,  and  the  Marsala  wines  of  Sicily  being 
among  the  largest  sales  abroad.  Olive  oil  *  is  surpassed  in 
the  foreign  trade  only  by  raw  silk.  The  olive  grows  every- 
where south  of  Florence  ;  the  best  oil,  from  Lucca  and  other 
places  near  the  north  limit  of  cultivation,  is  first  in  United 
States  markets,  but  the  middle  and  south  of  the  peninsula 
supply  the  largest  quantities.  The  orange  and  lemon  trees 
number  over  17,000,000.  f 

crop  in  the  north  ;  polenta  (Indian  corn  mush  or  hasty  pudding)  is  the 
basis  of  food  for  the  peasantry ;  the  basin  of  the  Po  produces  more  rice 
than  any  other  part  of  Europe ;  other  cereals  are  of  less  importance  ; 
tlie  climate  is  very  favorable  for  vegetables,  which  are  mucli  more  im- 
portant as  food  than  meat ;  as  many  poor  persons  subsist  almost  wholly 
on  boiled  chestnuts,  the  chestnut  is  the  most  important  forest  tree  of 
Italy.     There  are  many  chestnut  plantations. 

*  The  olive  tree  is  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  j\Iediter- 
ranean  lands,  its  original  home.  The  tree  lives  for  six  or  seven  cen- 
turies, and  is  grown  most  largely  in  Italy,  south  France,  Spain,  Turkey, 
and  Syria.  The  oil  frequently  replaces  butter,  and  is  preferred  for 
salads  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  making  olive  oil  the  olives  are 
pressed  as  in  a  cider  mill,  eigiit  and  one  half  pounds  of  olives  being 
required  for  a  quart  of  oil.     The  pickled  fruit  is  a  table  delicacy. 

t  Citrus  f?-uits  come  from  a  small  genus  of  trees  of  the  orange 
family,  including  the  orange,  lemon,  lime,  and  others.     Oranges  and 


294  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  demand  for  lumber  and  timber  is  not  covered  by 
the  home  production.  In  the  Po  basin  and  in  Sicily  large 
forests  have  been  recklessly  destroyed. 

Animal  raising  is  of  inferior  importance.  It  is  mainly 
developed  in  the  north.  Cattle  in  large  numbers  graze  on 
the  rich  grass  of  the  Po  valley.  Some  of  the  cheeses  of 
the  Lombardy  plain  are  widely  known  and  figure  in  the 
exports.  Tlie  army  is  not  able  to  obtain  all  the  horses  it 
needs  in  the  home  markets,  the  breeding  of  donkeys  and 
mules,  particularly  in  the  peninsula,  being  a  larger  industry. 
The  best  wool  is  grown  in  the  mountain  pastures  of  the 
Abruzzi  (middle  of  the  peninsula)  and  in  Sicily,  but  only 
half  the  wool  manufactured  is  supplied  by  the  sheep 
farmers.  As  in  all  mountainous  countries  of  Europe, 
thousands  of  goats  are  raised  mainly  for  kidskins  and 
morocco  leather. 

In  comparison  with  northern  j)eoples,  the  Italians  eat 
very  little  flesh.  Enormous  quantities  of  fish,  however,  are 
consumed  in  this  Roman  Catholic  country ;  nearly  80,000 
men  are  employed  in  the  fisheries  all  around  the  coasts  (Fig. 
120),  but,  as  they  are  not  able  to  supply  the  demand,  a 
great  deal  of  canned  cod,  pickled  herring,  and  other  fish  is 
imported.  The  coral  *  and  sponge  fisheries  are  also  impor- 
tant (p.  88).  Poultry  is  raised  everywhere,  being  next  to 
mutton  the  preferred  animal  food;  the  export  of  eggs  is 
very  large. 

Nearly  600,000  persons  are  engaged  in  raising  the  silk- 
worm.    It  is  the  most  important  branch  of  rural  industry 

lemons  are  imported  into  northern  countries  fi'om  Mediterranean  lands^ 
Portugal,  and  the  Azores,  but  most  of  all  from  Sicily.  Orange  culture 
in  California  and  Florida  and  the  duty  on  oranges  aiul  lemons  have 
reduced  Sicily's  American  trade.  Limes  come  chiefly  from  the  West 
Indies. 

*  The  red  coral  of  commerce  is  obtained  in  the  Mediterranean  off 
the  coast  of  Africa  and  the  west  coast  of  Italy.  The  price  varies  accord- 
ing to  color.  The  finest  rose-pink  in  large  pieces  is  valued  at  ^400  cr 
more  an  ounce.     The  common  article  brings  $1  to  $1..50  an  ounce. 


ITALY  295 

and  the  source  of  Itcaly's  largest  exports.  Climate  and  soil 
are  admirably  adapted  for  the  mulberry  and  silkworm. 
Italy  holds  the  first  rank  in  Europe  and  the  third  in  the 
world  (after  China  and  Japan)  in  the  production  of  raw 
silk  (Fig.  55).  Lombardy,  Piedmont,  and  Venetia  (Fig. 
123)  produce  more  than  three  fourths  of  the  entire  crop, 
and  Lombardy  alone  two  fifths,  but  it  is  raised  to  some 
extent  throughout  Italy,  Piedmont  producing  the  best 
quality.  Most  raw  silk  is  sent  to  Milan,  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal market.  All  European  and  most  American  manufac- 
turers buy  a  great  deal  of  Italian  raw  silk,  which  is  exported 
through  Genoa  or  over  the  international  railroads. 

There  is  little  mineral  wealth.  Though  there  is  no  coal, 
a  few  hundred  thousand  tons  of  lignite  mined  every  year 
supplement  the  coal  imported  from  Cardiff  and  Austria. 
Elba  and  Sardinia  have  excellent  iron  ore,  which  is  not  yet 
fully  utilized.  Boracic  acid,  of  importance  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  borax,  is  found  native  in  the  lagoons  of  Tuscany. 
Salt  is  obtained  by  evaporating  sea  water  or  mining  rock 
salt.  Of  Carrara  marble  (Fig.  119),  which  for  many  cen- 
turies has  been  preferred  by  sculptors  to  any  other  marble, 
over  100,000  tons  are  produced  every  year,  4,500  men  work- 
ing in  the  quarries  and  about  1,000  men  sawing  and  polish- 
ing the  marble.  Italian  copper  is  smelted  both  at  home 
and  at  Swansea,  England;  the  distribution  of  other  min- 
erals is  shown  in  Fig.  120. 

Thirty  thousand  persons  are  engaged  in  mining  sulphur. 
The  exports  amount  to  nearly  500,000  tons  a  year,  of  which 
the  United  States  purchases  about  one  third.  Sicily,  the 
largest  producer  in  tbe  world  (p.  138),  mines  most  of  it. 

Manufactures  are  growing  (Fig.  123).  These  industries, 
however,  owing  partly  to  lack  of  capital,  coal,  and  continu- 
.ous  water  power,  are  still  inferior  to  those  of  the  great 
industrial  states.  AYhile  there  is  an  important  foreign 
demand  for  a  few  articles,  such  as  Venetian  glass,  Milan 
cutlery,  straw  goods,  and  coral   jewelry,  the   imports  of 


296 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


manufactures  are  more  valuable  than  the  exports.  The 
industries  are  mainly  confined  to  the  north.  The  leading 
branch  is  silk  goods,  centered  largely  in  Lombardy  (Milan 
and  Como),  Piedmont,  and  Venetia;  Florence,  Xaples,  and 


/     . ,  ,>-^  A    i  •»..     R^;v^  ConsiderabU   " 

/r-C\^  n   /\<     /  ^«'»««    ■•  I  ■• 

^/     i  Cliii;  i  .;!,        ^— .  ■-.       ,    I     AUSTRIA-     \    ■ 

f      .'  \     ■'   V^'        V  i  r   .  i J .  „  „     \ 


INDUSTRIES 

OF 
NORTH  ITALY 

SCALE  1 ;  1.U0,000 
0       10      20      30      40      50    I      1  L 


i."v. 


METAL  AND  MECHk-. 
INDUSTRIES, BORIC  A'  i'     "   '   ''-^'.^Z.,^^-^         ] 


Fig.  123. 

Palermo  are  also  represented.  Woolen  cloths  are  produced 
in  increasing  quantities,  so  that  Italy  is  importing  less  than 
formerly.  Imports  of  raw  cotton  increased  thirteenfold 
between  1871  and  1898.  Cotton  from  British  India  was 
formerly  preferred,  but,  being  adapted  only  for  coarser 
fabrics,  American  and  Egyptian  cottons  are  now  chiefly 
used.  Exports  of  cotton  cloth,  mainly  to  Argentina,  Brazil, 
and  Turkey,  now  exceed  the  imports.* 

*  The  hemp  fields  give  abundant  material  for  the  large  cordage 
manufactures.  Until  after  1888.  Italy  bought  most  of  her  iron  and 
steel  from  England,  Germany,  and  France ;  but  large  establishments  in 
the  towns  around  Genoa  and  elsewhere  now  produce  a  great  deal  of 
finished  steel,  and  make  locomotives,  rails,  and  machinery.     Shipyards 


ITALY  29T 

The  imports  are  food  supplies,  fuel,  raw  materials,  and 
manufactures ;  the  exports  are  chiefly  agricultural.  Grain 
is  the  largest  import,  followed  by  raw  cotton,  wool  and 
woolen  manufactures,  timber,  iron,  and  steel.  Raw  silk  and 
silk  goods  are  about  a  third  of  the  entire  exports,  while 
olive  oil,  wine,  straw  goods,  hemp,  fruits,  eggs,  coral  manu- 
factures, and  sulphur  are  very  important.  Observe  be- 
low the  predominance  in  1899  of  imports  from  Great 
Britain  (mainly  coal,  iron,  textiles,  and  machinery) ;  also 
the  predominance  of  exports  to  the  great  silk-manufactur- 
ing countries  of  Europe.  Among  the  articles  that  Italy 
sells  to  the  United  States  are  sulphur,  olive  oil,  marble,  and 
wine.  Cotton,  tobacco,  wheat,  copper,  and  farm  machinery 
are  among  the  large  purchases  from  this  country. 

STATISTICS   FOR   ITALY^ 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1871-75.  1881-"a5.  1890--94.  1899. 

Imports 263.0  297.0  260.0  290.7 

Exports 241.0  249.0  212.5  276.2 

Imports  from  Leading  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 

Grpat      T>„«„:„      rjHrrmiiv      United     Austria-        Fr„npp     Switzer-      Rf.ip.:„n, 
Britain,    ^^s^^^-    i^erniaiij.     gt^tes.    Hungary.      France.       j^^^^j  Belgium. 

60  39  37  34  32  31  12  7 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 

Switzer-    Oerminv       France         Austria-        Great      United      Bele-inm       Russia 
land.       Germany,      trance.      Hungary.    Britain.    States.     Belgium.     Kussia. 

49  48  40  31  30  24  5  3 

Population,  1899,  31,856,675. 

The  coinage,  weights,  and  measures  are  those  of  France, 
the  names  being  changed  to  Italian  equivalents. 

at  Sestri,  near  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Spezia  make  men-of-war  and  mer- 
cliant  vessels.  Metals  and  machinery  are  still  imported  in  large  quan- 
tities. Italy  excels  in  various  artistic  products,  such  as  the  mosaics  of 
Florence,  Venice,  and  Rome,  the  glassware  of  Venice,  made  from  the 
silica  of  neighboring  Murano,  and  the  porcelain  and  jewelry  manufac- 
tured at  Naples  and  other  cities. 


CHAPTEE   XXVIII 

SPAIN   AND    PORTUGAL 

The  influence  of  the  natural  features  of  the  Iberian  Pen- 
insula is  to  retard  rather  than  to  promote  commerce.  The 
peninsula,  however,  is  more  favorably  situated  for  trade 
with  Central  and  South  America  and  West  Africa  than  any- 
other  country  of  Europe.  Though  nearly  surrounded  by 
sea,  the  height  of  the  plateau,  which  is  surmounted  by 
mountain  ranges,  gives  most  of  it  a  continental  instead  of 
a  sea  climate.  The  mountains  keep  the  larger  part  of  the 
rainfall  from  reaching  the  interior,  which  is  therefore  very 
dry.  On  the  Mediterranean  coasts  the  rain  falls  mainly  after 
the  growing  season ;  irrigation  is  therefore  the  basis  of  the 
largest  agriculture.  The  mountains  make  road-building 
difficult ;  the  rivers  are  too  small  and  swift  to  be  navigable 
except  for  short  distances;  the  peninsula,  therefore,  has 
inadequate  means  of  communication,  which  is  to  the  detri- 
ment of  all  kinds  of  business.  The  Pyrenees  are  a  wall  of 
exclusion,  for  there  are  no  jjasses  across  them  like  those  of 
the  Alps  which  lead  from  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  France 
into  Italy.  Eailroads  pass  around  the  ocean  ends  of  tlie 
Pyrenees,  but  the  detour  is  i?iconvmient,  and  most  of  the 
freight  is  carried  by  sea. 

Spain's  largest  interests  are  agricultural  (Fig.  124).  Over 
half  the  people  1  \  *  by  agriculture,  which  supplies  more 
than  half  of  the  ext»orts.  The  specia  disadvantages  of  the 
farmer  are  that  most  ( f  the  land  is  in  u  ^e  holdings  owned 
by  the  nobility,  farm  methods  and  im]_  nts  are  primi- 

tive, taxes  high,  and  communications  j  jr.  The  special 
298 


SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL 


209 


advantage  is  that  irrigation  works,  begun  by  the  Moors, 
and  extended  and  fostered  by  Government  to  the  present 
time,  are  among  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  Irriga- 
tion, in  a  wide  belt  along  most  of  the  Mediterranean  front, 


Fig.  124. 


has  helped  to  transform  a  large  area  into  a  region  of  re- 
markable fertility,  well  wortliy  of  the  name  huertas  or  gar- 
dens. Eock  is  blasted  and  powdered  to  form  soil,  street 
sweepings  and  other  fertilizers  are  used,  and  as  a  result  no 
land  in  the  world  is  more  productive.  These  irrigated  lands 
produce  southern  fruits,  vegetables,  sug  ^  jane,  nuiize,  and 
other  crops  requiring  jubundant  moisture 

The  dry  lands  o'.rthe  interior  are  o  luch  greaier  .  a- 
tent.  Depending.,  imost  wholly  upon  rauifall,  a  lurge  ) -.rt 
of  them  are  untillei  t.  However,  wheat  and  other  cereais  grow 
on  them.     The  wheat  crop  does  not  always  meet  tlie  Ji'\'ds 


,    .  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

.  '  lio  local  markets,  and  then  imports  are  considerable.  A 
■V  il.  region  around  Yalladolid  (Fig.  124)  is  called  the  gran- 
.  r,  '"t'  Castile;  rice  thrives  on  swampy  lands  bordering  the 
( ;  iilf  of  Valencia ;  barley  is  grown  for  cattle  food,  and  rye  is 
tlie  s  aif  of  life  in  the  moist  northwest ;  oats  are  little  grown. 
Wine  is  the  largest  export.     In  1891  it  was  nearly  a  third 

t   iwe  total  exports.     The  grape  thrives  nearly  everywhere  ; 

iio  '  >uic  quality  of  some  of  the  vintages  has  caused  them 
U)  I  .  highly  valued  for  medicinal  as  well  as  for  table  use; 
many  ordinary  wines,  poorly  made  and  selling  at  a  pittance, 
a^-c  c  )nsamed  by  the  peasantry  (p.  69).  The  wines  of  Jerez 
i,^  !(•  -y),  of  Malaga,  and  Alicante  (Fig.  124)  are  particularly 
lonumied.  England  and  the  United  States  take  a  large 
par^  of  the  exports. 

'}■'.  uits  are  a  large  export.  They  are  the  most  profitable 
I  ro|,  )f  the  huertas.  Oranges  and  lemons  are  a  great  prod- 
uct a  ong  the  Gulf  of  Valencia  and  in  the  Balearic  Islands. 
The  ])eel  of  the  bigarade,  the  bitter  orange,  is  sent  to  Hol- 

:!;id  'or  the  manufacture  of  cura(;ao.*    Olives  and  olive  oil 

■iT(>    'nly  less   important   than    oranges   in   foreign   trade. 

h^    ;:  produces  more  olive  oil  than  any  other  country,  and 

1    ■  mes  most  of  the  product.     The  olive  is  grown  nearly 

■ .  1;  w^here,  but  mainly  iij  the  southern  provinces.  Spau- 
■=  -lUves  for  table  use  come  largely  from  Seville.  Most  of 
■  U"  o'A  is  supplied  from  Cordoba;  a  great  deal  is  refined  in 
'  lar'.-e,  much  of  the  home  product  being  poorly  made. 
L-j]  ■■irto,  an  important  export  to  England,  grows  on  the 
'  V  'a ads  of  the  southeast  (p.  103).  Tobacco,  a  Government 
'opoly,   is   imported,   though   it   is   also   raised  in  the 

-    imal  industries  are  less  important.     Xo  animal  prod- 
: -gure  to  a  very  large  extent  in  foreign  sales;  on  the 

he  common  form  eura9oa  is  due  to  a  blunder  in  spelling  the 
'f  the  island  Curasao  on  an  early  map.     The  spelling  curagao 

I.    liqueur  is  fully  authorized,  and  is  used  by  the  Schie- 

i;  anufacturers. 


SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL  301 

other  hand,  wooleu  and  silk  goods,  codfish,  and  live  animals 
are  large  imports.  The  climate  is  so  dry  that  few  pastoral 
areas  have  a  luxuriant  growth  of  grass.  Only  in  the  north- 
west, where  rain  from  the  Atlantic  is  abundant,  are  cattle 
raised  in  large  numbers,  some  being  sent  to  British  mar- 
kets. The  animals  used  in  the  cruel  national  sport  of  bull- 
fighting are  reared  in  the  southern  mountains.  Fine  horses, 
originally  of  Arab  stock,  are  also  raised  in  the  south ;  but, 
as  in  all  Mediterranean  countries,  mules  and  donkeys  are 
more  numerous.  In  proportion  to  population,  Spain  raises 
more  sheep  than  any  other  country  of  Europe  ;  they  graze 
on  the  drier  pastures  of  the  plateau.  The  famous  fine 
wool  merinos  that  did  so  much  to  improve  the  wool  crop  of 
the  world  have  been  largely  replaced  by  coarse  wool  breeds. 
The  wool  product  does  not  suffice  for  home  needs.  Hogs 
are  most  numerous  in  the  oak  forests  of  the  west  (Fig.  124). 
The  climate  is  highly  suitable  for  silkworm  culture,  but 
the  industry  is  now  only  one  tenth  as  large  as  a  half  cen- 
tury ago.  Raw-silk  culture  is  mainly  confined  to  the  re- 
gions along  the  Gulf  of  Valencia.  Five  sixths  of  the  silk 
is  sold  in  France,  from  whence  large  quantities  of  silk  goods 
are  imported.  The  fisheries  are  important,  but  do  not  be- 
gin to  supply  the  demand. 

Cork  is  a  large  export  (Fig.  124).  It  is  derived  from  the 
bark  of  a  species  of  oak  thriving  mainly  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Algeria.  The  bark,  removed  without  injuring  the  tree, 
is  used  as  stoppers  for  glass  bottles,  and  in  life-preservers 
and  lifeboats  (p.  114).  As  most  of  the  country  is  treeless, 
the  wood  imports  from  Scandinavia,  and  of  staves  for  wine 
casks,  from  the  United  States,  are  large. 

The  mineral  resources  in  the  mountains  of  the  north  and 
south  are  very  great.  Foreign  capital  carries  on  most  of 
the  mining,  which  has  not  as  yet  produced  great  industrial 
development  (Fig.  124).  The  southern  mountains  are 
among  the  largest  producers  of  copper  and  quicksilver  in 
the  world  (Fig.  G7  and  p.  138) ;  they  yield  also  great  quan- 


302  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

tities  of  silver  and  lead.  The  superior  iron  ore  of  the  north 
coast  is  sent  from  Bay  of  Biscay  ports  by  thousands  of  tons 
to  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  ;  but  Spain 
does  not  figure  very  largely  in  pig  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures. Although  the  northern  and  southern  mountains  con- 
tain vast  quantities  of  coal,  the  commodity  is  imported  for 
home  industries.  The  main  use  of  metals  is  to  sell  them  to 
foreign  countries;  the  shipments  are  therefore  very  im- 
portant. 

Manufactures  do  not  supply  the  demand.  The  purchasing 
power  of  the  masses  of  the  people  is  very  small ;  it  is 
therefore  cheaper  to  import  goods  than  to  establish  expen- 
sive plants  to  supply  the  home  need.  The  largest  center  of 
manufactures  is  Barcelona  and  the  surrounding  region, 
where  the  textile  industries  have  important  development. 
Large  quantities  of  Spanish  cottons  and  linens  were  sold  in 
the  colonies  of  Spain  before  she  lost  them.  The  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  machinery  is  important  in  the  iron  dis- 
tricts of  the  north  coast.  Flour  and  oil  mills  are  numer- 
ous. One  company  has  a  concession  from  the  Government 
to  manufacture  and  sell  all  the  tobacco  ;  50,000  families  are 
supported  on  the  wages  it  disburses.  The  factories  deijeud, 
to  a  large  extent,  upon  American  tobacco.  Silver  and  gold 
manufactures,  glass,  china  ware,  and  chocolate  are  specialties 
of  Madrid  and  a  few  other  cities. 

Spain  is  poor  in  railroads.  Freight  rates  are  high,  trains 
are  slow,  and  the  most  productive  regions  are  still  destitute 
of  rapid  and  cheap  communications  with  the  ports  and 
interior  cities  (p.  45).  Spain  takes  so  small  a  part  in 
international  trade  that  the  merchant  marine  is  inferior, 
the  shipping  being  almost  all  under  the  British  or  French 
flags.* 


*  The  most  important  port  and  most  active  industrial  and  com- 
mercial city  is  Barcelona.  The  coal  fields  north  of  it  supply  the  local 
industries  and  shipping.     Valencia,  on  the  gulf  of  that  name,  exports 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL  303 

The  value  of  the  exports  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
imports.  The  exports  of  wine,  minerals,  and  fruits  are  very 
large.  Imports  are  confined  mainly  to  articles  of  necessity, 
such  as  cotton,  coal,  food,  textiles,' lumber,  and  machinery. 
One  third  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  France,  Great 
Britain  being  the  next  largest  buyer  and  seller.  Spain's 
foreign  trade  is  only  half  that  of  Belgium  and  a  third  that 
of  the  Netherlands. 

Portugal's  foreign  trade  is  only  one  fourth  as  large  as  that 
of  Spain.  The  soil  is  poor,  about  one  half  of  the  area  being 
unproductive.  The  largest  industries  are  agriculture  and 
fisheries.  The  development  of  textile  industries  at  Lisbon 
and  Oporto  for  the  home  and  colonial  trade  is  somewhat 
important.  Wine  is  the  great  export  staple,  comprising 
more  than  a  third  of  the  foreign  sales.  The  best  known 
wine  is  port,  which  is  manufactured  and  shipped  at  Oporto. 
Cork,  copper,  fish,  and  southern  fruits  are  also  important 
shipments.  Colonial  goods*  are  the  largest  imports  except 
grain. 

STATISTICS   FOR  SPAIN 

Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881- '85. 

Imports 156.0 

Exporls 188 . 8 

Population  (1897),  17,7415,976. 

The  unit  of  coinage  is  the  peseta,  equal  in  value  to  the 
franc.     Metric  system  of  weights  and  measures. 

fruits,  and  has  silk  industries  in  connection  with  the  adjacent  supply  of 
raw  silk.  Malaga  exports  the  famous  Malaga  grape  and  wines,  and  zinc 
and  lead  ores.  Cadiz  depends  upon  commerce,  l)ut  its  trade  is  declin- 
ing. Sanlander  and  P>ilI)ao,  on  the  north  coast,  ship  iron  ore  from  the 
iicighltoring  mines.  jMadrid  has  more  [)olilieal  than  Industrial  or  com- 
mci'clMl  importance. 

*  In  many  commercial  statistics  the  imports  from  European  colo- 
nies in  the  tropics,  such  as  sugar,  spices,  rice,  and  coffee,  are  grouped 
under  the  head  colonial  goods. 


1890-'94. 

1899. 

175.0 

149.8 

160.4 

116.0 

304  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

'    STATISTICS   FOR  PORTUGAL 

Average  Annual  Trade  (ix  Million  Dollars) 

1881-85. 

Imports 40.2 

Exports 25 .5 

Population  (1890),  4,660,095. 

Gold  standard ;  unit  of  coinage  is  the  milreis,  worth 
$1.08.     Metric  system  of  weights  and  measures. 


391--95. 

1899. 

44.3 

54.7 

38.1 

31.1 

CHAPTEE   XXIX 

RUSSIA    IN    EUROPE 

The  Russian  empire  embraces  over  one  sixth  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  is  nearly  three  times  as  large  as  the 
United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Russia  in  Europe  in- 
cludes more  than  one  half  the  area  of  Europe,  and  its  pop- 
ulation is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
Germany,  and  Spain. tJogether. 

Extending  farther  south  than  the  northern  plains  of 
Italy  and  penetrating  the  arctic  zone,  Eussia  has  much 
variety  of  climate.  Vineyards  thrive  in  the  Crimea,  and 
frozen  swamps  skirt  the  north  coast  (Fig.  125).  The  win- 
ters are  colder  and  the  summers  hotter  than  in  western  Eu- 
rope in  the  same  latitudes.  [  Xo  mountain  ranges  obstruct 
the  cold  north  winds  which  sweep  southward  to  the  Black 
Sea.  The  only  mountains  are  on  or  near  the  soutli  and 
west  borders  of  Eussia,  the  Caucasus  range  with  its  con- 
tinuation, the  Jaila  Mountains,  in  the  Crimea,  and  the  Ural 
Mountains,  the  longest  range  in  Europe.  The  whole  of 
Eussia  between  these  border  mountains  and  the  Baltic  and 
Arctic  Seas  is  a  low  plain,  300  to  600  feet  above  sea  level, 
but  rising  in  a  few  areas  to  1,000  feet.  One  of  these  higher 
areas,  of  which  the  Valdai  Hills  are  a  part,  is  the  center 
from  which  radiate  most  of  the  largest  riA^ers,.the  Volga, 
Dnieper,  Don,  AVostern  Dvina,  and  Xiemen. 

Russia  is  thinly  populated.     This  is  due  to  its  far  uort  li- 
crn  position   and  the   predominance  of   agriouUure   ovt 
'  iirf.>.      O   1'    (inc   ci"!!!]!  (if  ilir    iKMiiil"   1i^■^'  iir  '' 


■  Vn't 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


towns,  but  the  growth  of  industries  is  increasing  the  urban 
popuUition.  Two  thirds  live  in  Poland,  the  Moscow  indus- 
trial district,  and  the  black-earth  lands  (Fig.  127),  where  the 


125— Snow  covers  the  ground  at  Odessa  eighty  days,  at  Moscow  one  hundred 
md  twenty  days,  and  on  the  Siberian  border  near  the  Antic  Ocean  over  two 
uindred  and  twenty  days.  The  average  rainfall  i.-;  not  over  20  inches  a  year, 
vhich.  though  far  less  than  in  western  Europe,  is  usually  sufficient  to  insure  good 
■rops.    Very  dry  seasons  result  in  crop  failure  and  famine. 

Stand  for  labor  encourages  the  greatest  density  of  popula- 
1.  There  are  many  racial  elements  speaking  many  lan- 
iges,  Poles,  Finns,  Turco-Tartars,  and  Jews,  but  most  of 


\  RUSSIA  m  EUROPE  307 

the  people  are  Eussians.  The  peasantry  are  inferior  in  edu- 
cation and  enterprise  to  those  in  countries  west  of  them. 

The  Government  strives  to  develop  manufacturing  and 
make  Russia  industrially  independent.  It  protects  home 
industries  by  a  high  tariff,  averaging  35  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  imports,  charging  the  Ministry  of  Manufactures 
and  Trades  with  the  supervision  of  industry  and  commerce, 
supports  ninety  agricultural  schools  and  many  experimental 
farms,  and  appoints  special  agents  to  seek  foreign  markets 
for  Eussian  products.  The  duty  on  coal  at  Black  Sea  ports 
is  four  times  that  at  Baltic  ports,  because  coal  sent  to  the 
Black  Sea  competes  with  south  Eussian  coal,  which  in  north 
Eussia  is  dearer  on  account  of  freightage. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry  (Fig.  126).  Yet, 
owing  to  the  poverty  and  ignorance  of  most  of  the  peasantry, 
inferior  farm  machinery,  frosts,  and  severe  periods  of  drought, 


HAY  AND 

ARABLE  LAND  26.2              PASTURE 
16.9 

FOREST  33.8 

UNPRODUCTIVE 
1D.  1 

Fig.  126. — Siibdivisious  of  the  soil  in  Kussia. 

agriculture  is  not  highly  developed.  English  farmers  raise 
from  two  to  four  times  as  much  grain  to  the  acre  as  Eus- 
sian farmers.  Still,  Eussia  produces  about  two  thirds  of  the 
oats  and  half  the  rye  of  Europe,  more  barley  than  any  other 
European  state,  is  surjiassed  only  by  the  United  States  in 
its  wheat  crop,  and  raises  more  flax  and  hemp  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world  (Fig.  127).  Maize  is  grown  in 
the  southwest.  In  good  seasons  Eussia  exjiorts  95,000,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  ranking  after  the  United  States  as  a  seller 
of  this  cereal,  supplying  three  fourths  of  the  export  wheat 
of  Europe,  and  selling  most  of  it  in  west  and  south  Europe. 
Eye  is  the  leading  breadstuff  for  home  consumption,  and 
the  quantity  raised  is  more  than  double  that  of  wlieat. 
Oats,  barley,  and  rye  are  largely  raised  north  of  the  chief 
wheat  area.  Eico,  raised  in  'IVaiis-fiiucasia,  is  shi]){)ed  all 
over  Eussia,  through  Volga  and  lJla(;k  Sea  ports.     Flax  has 


308  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  largest  acreage  of  any  crop,  and  supplies  nearly  four 
fifths  of  the  flax  fiber  in  the  world.  Hemp  has  a  much 
smaller  acreage. 

More  than  1,000,000  acres  are  giyen  to  sugar-beet  cul- 
ture. The  home  product  supplies  a  surplus  for  export, 
Eussia  being  the  chief  source  of  sugar  for  all  the  Black  Sea 
territory  and  Persia.* 

Russia  has  the  third  place  in  the  extent  of  its  forest  area 
(p.  114).  The  home  demand  for  lumber  and  fuel  is  enor-^ 
mous,  as  most  buildings  are  of  wood  and  as  wood  fuel  is 
largely  used  in  manufactures  and  in  the  reduction  of  ores. 
The  lumber  industry  is  active  near  streams,  that  float  logs 
to  the  mills  and  the  product  to  market,  and  flourishes  far 
north  in  the  Xorthern  Dvina  basin  and  east  of  it.  Lumber 
and  timber  exports,  worth  about  $25,000,000  a  j'ear,  are  sur- 
passed in  value  only  by  the  wheat  shipments.  Other  prod- 
ucts of  the  forests  are  resin,  tar,  potash,  turpentine,  and 
wood  pulp  ;  the  forests,  too,  are  the  source  of  the  most  of 
Russia's  diminishing  fur  trade. 

More  farm  animals  are  raised  than  in  any  other  country 
of  Europe  (Fig.  127).  Stock  raising,  which  is  not  so  promi- 
nent in  the  black  earth  lands,  flourishes  in  the  southern 
steppe  regions,  where  there  are  enormous  herds  of  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  and,  in  the  southeast,  camels.  About  half 
the  horses  of  the  continent  are  raised  in  Russia ;  it  far  sur- 
passes all  the  other  countries  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  is 
inferior  only  to  Germany  in  the  number  of  hogs.  Large 
quantities  of  hides,  leather,  hair,  and  bristles  are  exported. 
Meat  and  milk  are  the  main  object  of  cattle  raising  in  the 
United  States  and  western  Europe,  but  in   Russia   dairy 


*  Russia  ranks  after  Germany  and  Austria-Hungaiy  in  tobacco 
culture,  producing  100,000,000  pounds  a  3-ear.  The  potato  croj)  is  large, 
and  is  used  both  as  food  and  in  the  distillation  of  brandy.  Viticulture 
has  made  much  progress  in  the  southwest,  and  the  best  red  wines  now 
compare  favorably  with  good  French  wines  and  are  cheaper.  The  first 
exports  went  to  Great  Britain  in  1897. 


RUSSIA     jpj 

[anufaetures   J^       / 
11(1  ri-,lieries.<^    ^   / 


Forests 

FoTCBtB  and  TUlage 

E--"-  '-i  Predominant  Ayricult 
C^   industrial  A 


Fig.  127.— The  ve;;etation  may  be  divided  into  five  areas  :  (1)  The  tnndra  (treeless 
land),  on  the  arctic  coast,  growing  reindeer  moss,  lichens,  and  stnnted  shrubs  ; 
(2)  the  forest,  south  of  the  tnndra,  covering  more  than  a  third  of  the  country, 
extending  over  the  whole  north  and  part  of  the  central  regions  ;  (3)  the  farm 
lands,  where  most  of  the  root,  trrain,  and  fiber  crops  an;  grown,  stretching  in  a 
wide  zone  south  of  tin-  forests.  (This  agricultural  zone  or  black-earth  region, 
covered  to  various  de))tlis  with  a  dark,  rich,  vegetable  humus,  is  Kussia's  greatest 
source  of  wealth,  as  it  is  the  great  wheat-growing  region.)  (4)  The  fertile  steppes 
of  the  southwest  and  south,  where  millions  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  graze; 
(5)  the  sterile  or  salt  steppes  of  the  southeast,  unfertile  on  accoimt  of  very  small 
precipitation,  inhabited  only  by  nomads. 

309 


310  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

products  are  of  secondary  imjoortance,  hides  and  tallow 
being  the  chief  interest.* 

Minerals  are  very  abundant  (Fig.  128).  About  95  per 
cent  of  the  world's  supply  of  platinum  comes  from  the  west 
side  of  the  Uruls  (p.  136).  Most  minerals,  including  metals, 
are  consumed  in  the  home  industries,  the  exports  being 
partly  raw  materials  and  partly  manufactured  articles. 
Russia  supplies  four  fifths  of  all  the  coal  and  pig  iron  used 
in  the  country,  and  nearly  all  the  steel.  The  best  coal, 
anthracite,  is  obtained  in  south  Russia,  near  the  Donetz 
River,  and  these  mines  and  those  in  Poland  yield  two  thirds 
of  the  output.  Iron  ore  is  mined  most  largely  in  the  Urals 
and  south  Russia.  The  production  of  iron  is  restricted  by 
the  inadequate  supply  of  coal,  and  the  fact  that  most  of  the 
wood  (charcoal)  within  easy  reach  of  the  smelters  has  been 
consumed.  For  this  reason  Russia  has  to  import  much  iron 
and  its  manufactures.  The  metal  and  machinery  industries 
are  thus  embarrassed.  The  only  regions  where  coal  and 
iron  in  juxtaposition  are  largely  mined  are  south  Russia  and 
Poland.  The  iron  product  of  the  Urals  and  south  Russia  is 
about  equal,  and  iron  is  mined  in  the  Kama  basin  and  the 
lake  region  of  Finland,  where  the  ore  is  of  good  quality  and 
cheaply  produced,  f 

In  1887-'97  Russia  tripled  her  production  of  iron  and 
steel.  Their  inferior  quality,  due  to  primitive  methods,  is 
being  remedied  by  improved  processes.  Most  of  the  smelt- 
ers are  in  the  Urals  and  near  the  southern  coal  and  iron 
districts,  and  the  metal  is  worked  chiefly  in  South  Russia, 

*  In  few  other  countries  are  fish  so  important,  the  demand  being 
largely  augmented  by  numerous  fast  days.  The  whale  and  cod  fisheries 
along  the  Murman  coast  are  now  being  developed  (Fig.  127). 

f  The  Urals  yield  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  Mercury  is  produced  in 
Ekaterinoslav,  and  zinc  is  a  product  of  Poland.  The  rich  beds  of  rock 
salt  in  the  Donetz  basin  yield  a  fourth  of  the  total  supply,  the  Crimea 
being  also  a  large  producer,  and  an  important  quantity  being  obtained 
from  salt  wells  and  saline  lakes. 


Fio.  128. — The  rivers,  navit,'ablc  nlmogt  to  their  sources  and  easily  connected  by 
canals,  provide  continuous  higluvays  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Caspian  Seas.  They 
carry  enormous  commerce,  and  are  the  cliief  and  cheapest  means  of  communica- 
tion. The  Russian  rivers  have  natural  disadvantages  :  they  are  closed  by  ice  in 
the  lon<,'  winters  ;  all  excejit  the  arctic  tributaries  terminate  in  inland  seas  ;  defi- 
cient rainfall  impedes  navi^'ation  in  some  southt^rn  rivers,  most  notably  the  Don  ; 
the  great  value  of  the  Dnieper,  IJiig,  and  Dniester  as  commercial  hi;;li\v»ys  is 
im))aired.  though  not  destroyed,  by  rajjids  where  these  etreaiiis  cross  the  narrow 
granite  bell  of  southwest  Russia. 

;!ii 


gl2  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Moscow,  and  the  St.  Petersburg  district  (Fig.  127).  The 
railroads  are  supplied  with  home-made  rails. 

Machinery  manufactures  are  in  the  central  and  particu- 
larly the  southern  industrial  regions  and  St.  Petersburg. 
About  200  factories  supply  agricultural  machines  and  im- 
plements. As  the  product  is  not  equal  in  quality  to  im- 
ported goods  and  as  the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand, 
the  heavy  duty  on  most  agricultural  machinery  has  been 
removed  till  190.3  to  encourage  imports. 

Russia  has  become  nearly  independent  of  foreign  manufac- 
tures (Fig.  127).  Within  forty  years  large  industries  have 
been  developed  by  means  of  modern  machinery  and  the  fac- 
tory system.  The  majority  of  workers,  however,  still  toil 
in  their  village  homes,  as  their  fathers  did,  making  many 
products  in  the  long  winters  :  fabrics  of  linen,  wool,  cotton, 
and  silk,  leather,  wood  and  metal  work,  cutlery,  agricultural 
implements,  pottery,  etc.  Combining  their  small  capital, 
many  are  buying  machinery  and  increasing  their  output. 
There  are  more  than  100,000  of  these  small  factories  and 
workshoj)s,  and  about  24,000  factories  are  situated  in  the 
large  centers  of  poi)ulation.  About  2,300,000  people  are 
employed  in  the  village  and  large  factories.  Industries 
that  do  not  supply  the  home  demand  are  chiefly  paper 
manufactures,  glass,  china  ware,  and  chemical  products. 
Moscow  is  the  greatest  industrial  center,  for,  being  the  rail- 
road center  of  Eussia,  with  forests  on  the  north  and  coal  on 
the  south,  it  is  most  conveniently  placed  for  receiving  raw 
material  and  distributing  products.* 

*  Warsaw  is,  next  to  Moscow,  the  most  important  inland  city  (Fig. 
128).  At  the  center  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Vistula,  it  is  the  third 
largest  city  of  the  empire,  the  point  of  convergence  of  trade  routes 
between  Russia  and  western  Europe.  Lodz  (Fig.  127),  near  the  Polish 
coal  fields,  produces  seven  eighths  of  all  the  cotton  cloth  made  in  Po- 
land and  one  tenth  of  the  cotton  yarn  spun  in  Russia.  Its  single  street, 
six  miles  long,  is  lined  with  many  factories.  Vilna,  on  the  railroad  be- 
tween St.  Petersburg  and  Warsaw,  is  an  industrial  town ;  Kief  is  the 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE  313 

The  chief  centers  of  the  textile  industries  (cotton,  silk, 
woolen,  and  linen  goods)  are  the  Moscow  industrial  region, 
St.  Petersburg,  and  the  neighborhood  of  the  central  and 
Polish  coal  fields.  Russia  produces  fine  qualities  of  prints, 
silks,  velvets,  and  woolen  goods. 

Cotton  manufacturing  has  excluded  all  except  the  finer 
foreign  fabrics,  and  is  increasing  the  export  of  home  fabrics 
to  Asia,  but  can  not  compete  in  the  markets  of  central  and 
west  Europe.  Russia  occupies  the  third  place  in  cotton 
spinning,  after  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  One 
third  of  the  raw  cotton  comes  from  Russian  territory  and 
two  thirds  from  the  United  States.  The  cotton  goods  are 
worth  two  thirds  of  the  total  value  of  textiles,  and  give  em- 
ployment to  nearly  1,000,000  adults  and  children. 

The  Moscow  district  leads  in  wool  spinning  and  weav- 
ing, and  St.  Petersburg,  Tver,  Lodz,  Warsaw,  and  Kharkof 
are  the  other  centers.  The  silk  industry,  concentrated 
almost  wholly  in  the  Moscow  district,  consumes  over  $6,000,- 
000  worth  of  raw  silk  and  yarn  a  year,  bought  in  Italy, 
China,  and  Persia.  Linen  manufacture  is  largely  carried 
on  in  the  central  governments,  Vladimir,  Kostroma,  and 
Jaroslav  being  the  chief  centers.* 

largest  center  of  sugar  refining ;  Kharkof  does  $20,000,000  of  busi- 
ness at  the  annual  January  fair ;  Saratof  is  one  of  the  tobacco  grow- 
ing and  manufacturing  centers;  Kazan  is  occupied  with  tanning,  dis- 
tilling, and  the  manufacture  of  "  Russia  leather,"  linen,  and  candles  ; 
Tula,  famous  for  cutlery  and  samovars,  is  the  scat  of  the  Government 
small-arms  factory  ;  Orenburg  is  a  caravan  terminus  ;  Tver  is  the  head 
of  steam  navigation  on  the  Volga ;  Poltava  is  noted  for  its  wool  and 
horse  fair;  Smolensk  is  a  large  commercial  center;  Perm  has  large 
gun  works;  and  Rylnnsk  is  the  center  of  grain  forwarding  by  water  to 
St.  Petersburg. 

*  The  distillery  industry  is  very  large,  the  average  consumption  of 
spirits  being  about  two  gallons  per  capita  a  year.  Esthonia,  south  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  is  the  greatest  center  of  production.  The  larger 
shipbuilding  yards  are  at  Sebastopol,  Odessa,  and  Nicolacff.  Flour 
mills  are  most  numerous  in  the  black  earth  region  and  the  southern 


314-  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAJPHY 

The  great  fairs  of  Russia  are  a  feature  of  its  internal  com- 
merce. The  most  famous  of  these  is  held  in  August  at 
xsizhni-Novgorod.  The  several  hundred  thousand  persons 
from  European  and  Asiatic  Eussia  who  attend  do  an  annual 
business  of  135,000,000.  All  kinds  of  Russian  merchandise, 
iron  manufactures  from  Siberia,  cotton  from  central  Asia, 
silks  and  silverware  from  Persia,  Bokhara,  and  Tashkent, 
and  turquoises  from  Persia  are  sold.  Large  fairs  are  also 
held  at  Kharkof,  Poltava,  and  Kief;  but  the  importance  of 
these  great  markets  is  declining,  because  cheap  travel  makes 
it  easy  for  merchants  to  buy  in  the  towns  where  goods  are 
made  and  kept  in  large  stock.  Cheap  freight  rates  both  by 
land  and  water  prevail. 

The  rivers  and  canals  are  of  larger  importance  than  rail- 
roads in  internal  commerce  (Fig.  128).  There  are  46,000 
miles  of  navigation,  more  than  half  of  it  floating  steam- 
boats ;  67  per  cent  of  river  freight  is  carried  on  the  Volga 
and  Xeva  systems.  Short  and  cheaply  constructed  canals 
between  the  rivers  greatly  extend  navigation.* 

Hundreds  of  freight  boats  from  the  Volga  and  Northern 
Dvina  reach  St.  Petersburg  every  year.  As  the  cart  roads 
are  very  poor,  the  winter  season,  when  sledging  is  universal, 
is  best  for  land  haulage. 

Three  fifths  of  the  railroad  mileage  is  operated  by  the 
Government  (Fig.  129).     Trunk  lines  connect  the  extremi- 

ports.     Russia  is  unsurpassed  in  the  excellence  of  her  leatlier  products, 
but  does  not  now  monopolize  the  manufacture  of  "  Russia  leather." 
There  are  400  sugar  refineries  in  the  Kief  and  Kharkof  governments 
and  Poland.     Soap  and  candles  are  important  manufactures. 
*  The  longest  river  and  canal  routes  are  : 

1.  Caspian  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean  :  (a)  Volga-Kama  and  Vicheg- 
da-Northern  Dvina ;  (b)  Volga-Sheksna  and  Sukona- Northern  Dvina. 

2.  Caspian  Sea  and  Baltic :  (a)  Volga-Sheksna-Belo  Ozero  and  Svir- 
Ladoga-Neva ;  (b)  Volga-Mologa  and  Ladoga-Neva ;  (c)  Volga  and 
Msta-Ladoga-Neva. 

3.  Black  Sea  and  Baltic  :  (a)  Dnieper-Bercsina  and  Western  Dvina; 
{b)  Dnieper-Pripet  and  Vistula;  (c)  Dnieper-Pripet  and  Niemen. 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE 


315 


ties  of  the  empire,  or  are  being  built.  Foreign  trade  by 
land  is  thus  carried  on  with  central  and  west  Europe  and 
the  Asiatic  countries  to  the  east  and  southeast. 


RUSSIA  K^j  ^^i:::''"^Tcri<^  o'^-'" 


Chief  Railroads      ') 

SCALE  OF  MILES  j 


^Vysy*^     ^^^y^pa^^U^lnoyii 


The  exports  amount  to  nearly  one  million  dollars  a  day 
and  the  imports  to  about  three  fourths  or  more  of  that  amount. 
Over  one  half  of  the  exports  are  cereals  and  flour.  Other 
leading  articles  in  the  order  of  their  importance  are  flux 
and  hemp  fi})ers,  timber,  and  wooden  goods,  oil  grains  (lin- 
seed and  grass  seeds),  dairy  produce   and   eggs,  naphtha, 


310  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

and  sugar.  Manufactured  goods  are  mostly  consumed  in 
the  country  or  sent  to  Asiatic  Kussia,  Persia,  Anatolia,  and 
China.  The  leading  imports  are  materials  for  manufacture, 
cotton,  raw  metals,  wool  and  woolen  yarn,  leather,  hides 
and  skins,  chemicals,  dyestulis,  and  coal,  besides  machin- 
ery, tea,  wine  and  spirits,  and  textiles  of  the  finer  grades. 
The  largest  business  is  done  with  Germany  and  the  United 
Kingdom,  Germany  supplying  a  third  and  the  United  King- 
dom a  fifth  of  all  Russia  buys  in  other  lands,  and  Germany 
purchasing  a  quarter  of  what  Russia  sells  abroad.  Great 
Britain  is  by  far  the  largest  purchaser  of  cereals,  and  Rus- 
sia depends  upon  that  country  and  Switzerland  for  cotton- 
manufacturing  machinery.  The  imports  of  machinery  from 
the  United  States  are  important ;  the  exports  to  the  United 
States  are  very  small,  chiefly  manganese  ore  and  licorice 
root. 

The  chief  seaports  are  on  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas  (Fig. 
128).  Russia,  however,  does  not  control  the  channels  con- 
necting them  with  the  Atlantic.  They  are  blocked  by  ice, 
except  Odessa,  Sebastopol,  and  Hango,  from  two  to  five 
months,  but  ice-breakers  are  now  lessening  this  obstruction. 
The  Black  Sea  ports  are  the  main  outlets  for  agricultural 
produce.  The  sea  trade  with  south  Europe  and  Asia  is 
chiefly  through  Black  Sea  ports;  with  north  and  central 
Europe  and  the  United  States  through  the  Baltic  ports.* 

*  Odessa  is  the  main  outlet  foi-  the  agricultural  products  of  south- 
west and  south-central  Russia.  Flour  mills,  sugar  refineries,  breweries, 
and  machine  factories  give  the  city  large  industrial  importance.  Other 
Black  Sea  ports  are  Nicolaeff,  chief  station  of  naval  construction,  a 
point  of  grain  shipment  and  of  petroleum  distribution  inland ;  Kher- 
son, with  exports  of  cereals,  timber,  and  liides  ;  Sebastopol,  now  a  naval 
station  closed  to  trade  :  Berdiansk  and  Mariupol,  grain  ports  of  the  Sea 
of  Azof;  Taganrog,  exporting  grain,  and  connected  by  rail  with  the 
Donetz  coal  fields :  and  Rostof,  exporting  grain,  wool,  and  cloth,  with 
large  fisheries  interests  and  manufactures  of  farm  machinery. 

St.  Petersburg,  though  remote  from  the  largest  mining  and  agricul- 
tural regions,  is  a  great  trade  center.     The  exports  are  valued  at  only 


.   RUSSIA   IN   EUROPE  317 

STATISTICS   FOR  RUSSIA 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

188I-'85.                          1891-'95.  1899. 

Imports 275.0                        234.5  806.1 

Exports 290.0                        314.0  309.8 


Imports  from  Leading  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 
(erraany.   England,  grates,  ^"stria.   France.   Belgium.   China.   Holland.    Italy. 
119.0        66.6       23.5       15.9       14.6        9.2         7.0         5.9       4.7 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 

lermany.   England.   France.  Holland.  Italy.  Austria.  Belgium.  Turkey.  F'"*^^'' 

84.2        66.2        30.8       25.1      14.3      13.7       12.1         6.3        2.5 


The  unit  of  coinage  is  the  silver  rouble,  worth  nomi- 
nally 77  cents ;  average  value,  about  50  cents.  The  unit  of 
measurement  is  the  arshine  (28  inches) ;  that  of  weight  is 
the  pood  (36  pounds  avoirdupois),  divided  into  40  pounds. 

one  third  to  one  half  as  much  as  those  from  Odessa,  but  the  imports  are 
about  twice  as  much.  The  imports,  chiefly  food,  raw  materials,  and 
articles  of  luxury,  are  mostly  consumed  locally.  Grain  and  timber  are 
the  largest  exports.  At  Riga  oats,  rye,  and  lumber  head  the  exports,  and 
coal  is  imported  from  England  for  its  textile  and  machinery  industries. 
Reval  leads  all  the  ports  in  the  shipment  of  spirituous  liquors.  It  is 
free  from  ice  five  weeks  longer  than  other  Baltic  ports.  Helsiiigfors  is 
the  center  of  the  Finnish  import  trade.  Vil)org  exports  lumber  and 
Abo  has  shipbuilding  works.  Hango  (Fig.  129),  ico  free,  is  iniporlant  in 
the  winter  trade  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Stockholm.  Archangel,  on 
the  White  Sea,  is  closed  by  ice  nearly  seven  months.  It  exports  hemp, 
flax,  oats,  and  the  forest  products  to  northwest  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  Astrakhan  is  the  shipping  port  on  the  Caspian  for  the  Persian 
trade.  Its  chief  industries  are  sturgeon  and  other  fishing,  and  caviare 
manufacture. 


CHAPTER   XXX 

THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA  AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY 

Important  trade  routes  between  the  Occident  and  the  Orient 
pass  through  the  Balkan  peninsula  (Fig.  130).  In  this  re- 
spect it  resembles  Italy  and  contrasts  strongly  with  Spain 
(pp.  388,  298).  Eailroads  from  Constantinople  near  the 
Black  Sea,  from  Varna  and  Burgas  on  the  Black  Sea,  and 
from  Salonica  and  Dedeagatsch  on  the  iEgean  Sea  connect 
with  all  the  commercial  centers  of  the  west ;  thus  the  pen- 
insula is  a  bridge  between  Asia  and  western  Europe.  It  is 
a  very  mountainous  land,  sloping  to  plains  and  lowlands  in 
the  eastern  half,  so  that  it  has  been  said  to  look  toward  the 
east.  The  northern  part  has  the  continental  climate ;  sub- 
tropical conditions  prevail  on  the  southern  coasts.  The 
great  diversity  of  peoples  and  creeds,  resulting  in  religious 
and  political  strife,  kept  most  of  the  peninsula,  till  re- 
cently, outside  the  field  of  international  trade.  Agricul- 
ture is  almost  the  sole  occupation. 

The  Danube  affords,  with  the  Ehine,  Main,  and  Ludwig 
canal,  an  unbroken  water  way  between  the  Xorth  and  Black 
Seas.  A  commission  appointed  by  the  powers,  whose  duty 
is  to  prevent  violation  of  the  Danube's  neutrality  and  to 
keep  the  river  navigable,  has  absolute  control  of  the  lower 
Danube.  Sulina  is  the  Black  Sea  port  at  the  mouth  of  the 
middle  branch,  the  only  outlet  in  the  delta  which  large  ves- 
sels can  enter.  The  river. is  usually  closed  by  ice  in  Janu- 
ary and  February. 

Rumania  is  one  of  the  three  large  granaries  of  Europe. 
Lying  between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Danube,  the  king- 
318 


THE  BALKAN  STATES 


SC*LE   I. tj. 000, 000 


0  M  lUU 


Fio.  IW. 


319 


320  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

dom  is  mostly  plain,  with  a  warm,  rich  soil,  the  western 
extension  of  the  black-earth  region  of  Eussia  (Fig.  127). 
The  inhabitants  are  mainly  farmers,  but  agriculture  is  still 
backward,  for  the  peasantry  were  serfs  till  1866,  and  have 
made  progress  slowly.  Cereals  are  the  great  product  of  the 
plain,  maize  being  the  largest  crop,  as  in  the  United  States, 
followed  by  wheat,  which  is  now  prepared  for  market  by 
steam  threshing  machines.  Most  of  the  wheat  may  be  ex- 
ported, as  maize  is  the  staple  food.  Grain  is  three  fourths 
of  the  exports,  most  of  it  being  shipped  to  Great  Britain, 
Belgium,  and  Germany  by  water  from  Galatz,  the  Danube 
port  above  the  delta  for  ocean  vessels.  The  vine  is  grown 
along  the  sunny  foothills  of  the  Carpathians  ;  stock  raising 
is  large,  but  animals  have  not  yet  become  very  important  in 
foreign  trade.  Eock  salt,  largely  exported,  and  petroleum 
from  the  Carpathians  are  the  only  mineral  products.  Bu- 
charest, in  the  center  -:  'u-.  plain,  is  the  chief  trading 
point ;  Galatz,  OP  ^'  is  the  great  grain  port ;  Cou- 

stansa  (Kustx-n^g  ships  cattle  from  the  Dobruja  plateau. 
Attempts  to  establish  large  industries  have  failed  owing  to 
lack  of  coal,  capital,  and  skilled  labor;  but  flour  mills,  dis- 
til Vries  (pror^ccmg  whisky  from  maize  and  brandy  from 
plums),  saw  mills,  shoe  and  clothing  factories,  and  tobacco 
ijv-;jdfactures  (a  state  monopoly)  are  considerable  indus- 
tries. Home  weaving  and  other  household  industries  sup- 
ply the  primitive  wants  of  the  people.  All  fine  articles  are 
imported,  the  imports,  mainly  textiles,  metal  wares,  and 
colonial  goods,  coming  most  largely  from  Austria-Hungary, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain;  few  of  these  imports  are 
from  the  United  States.  There  is  small  trade  with  neigh- 
boring Eussia,  for  neither  state  has  much  to  sell  that  the 
other  needs.* 

*  The  effect  of  the  poor  crop  years  of  1897-'98  upon  Rumania's 
trade  in  1899  (p.  326)  illustrates  the  vicissitudes  to  which  the  commerce 
of  a  purely  agricultural  country  is  exposed. 


THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA   AND  ASIATIC   TURKEY    321 

Swine  and  hog  products  are  the  chief  exports  of  Servia. 
Hogs  feed  in  every  valley  on  acorns  and  beech  nuts,  oak 
and  beech  trees  covering  most  of  this  mountainous  king- 
dom. The  river  valleys  are  very  fertile,  and  large  crops  of 
maize  and  wheat  are  raised.  The  ravages  of  phylloxera 
reduced  the  wine  crop  till  wine  is  now  an  import.  Bel- 
grade, the  capital,  splendidly  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Danube  and  the  Save,  is  the  chief  trading  point  betAveen 
Vienna  and  Budapest  on  one  side  and  Constantinople  and 
Salonica  on  the  other.  Here  most  of  the  business  of  the 
country  is  done,  and  the  few  important  industries,  carpet, 
cotton,  and  silk  weaving,  are  carried  on.  The  international 
railroad  passes  through  Belgrade,  follows  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Morava  Eiver,  and  branches  at  the  little  city  of  Xish, 
one  line  going  southeast  to  Sofia  and  Constantinople  and 
the  other  south  to  Salonica;  the  transit  freight  trade  is 
therefore  important.  Most  of  the  manufactures,  spinning 
and  weaving,  are  carried  on  in  the  homes.  As  Servia  has 
ample  water  and  rail  communications  with  Austria-Hun- 
gary, its  commerce  is  largely  controlled  by  that  empire, 
which  buys  five  sixths  of  the  hogs,  cattle,  and  other  agricul- 
tural products  and  supplies  five  eighths  of  the  metals, 
textiles,  and  other  imported  manufactures.  Great  Britain 
and  Germany  have  the  larger  part  of  the  remaining  trade.* 

The  southern  half  of  Bulgaria  is  its  most  fertile  and  pros- 
perous part.  Ricli  plains  abound  there,  while  tlie  northern 
half  is  more  mountainous.  In  the  center  is  the  famous 
Valley  of  Roses,  whence  the  world  derives  a  part  of  its  most 
delicate  perfumery,  more  than  half  of  the  attar  of  roses 
coming  from  this  valley. f 


*  Considerable  of  the  Balkan  trade,  credited  to  Austria-Hungary 
in  statistical  tables,  merely  passes  in  transit  through  that  empire  to  or 
from  Germany. 

f  Attar  of  roses  is  the  oil  distilled  from  the  petals  of  the  damask 
rose,  1,000  pounds  of  leaves  making  a  pound  of  oil.  The  rose  flf)ur- 
ishes  in  the  sandy  soil  around  Kazanlik,  which  is  the  center  of  the 
21 


322  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Cereals,  most  of  all  wheat  and  maize,  occupy  two  thirds 
of  the  tilled  lands ;  large  areas  are  given  to  tobacco,  fruit, 
and  wine.  The  people  have  the  taste  and  talent  for  manu- 
factures, hut  their  wretched  condition,  when  under  the 
Turkish  regime,  prevented  large  development.  They  sur- 
pass the  Servians  in  manufactures,  their  leather  and  shoe 
goods,  woolen  textiles,  and  carpets  being  noteworthy.  Most 
of  them,  however,  are  coarse,  and  they  are  consumed  solely 
in  the  home  trade. 

Sofia,  the  capital,  joined  by  rail  to  western  Europe  and 
Constantinople,  has  a  large  trade  ;  Eustchuk  is  the  Danube 
port,  with  a  railroad  to  Varna,  the  Black  Sea  port  of  north 
Bulgaria  ;  Burgas,  the  port  of  south  Bulgaria,  is  joined  by 
rail  to  the  international  railroad,  which  follows  the  rich 
valley  of  the  Maritza  across  Bulgaria.  All  the  chief  towns 
have  increased  in  population  from  four  to  tenfold  since 
Bulgaria,  which  includes  Eastern  Rumelia,  became  autono- 
mous in  1878.  Its  former  deplorable  state  illustrates  the 
paralyzing  effects  of  despotic  rule  upon  industry  and  com- 
merce. Grain,  textiles,  live  cattle,  hides,  and  perfumeries, 
the  leading  exports,  are  sent  chiefly  to  England,  Turkey, 
Germany,  France,  and  Belgium.  The  imports,  mainly  tex- 
tiles and  yarn,  colonial  goods,  metals,  and  metal  wares,  come 
chiefly  from  the  same  countries.* 

The  principality  of  Montenegro  has  no  railroads  or  indus- 
tries and  little  agriculture.  This  mountainous,  limestone 
region,  a  part  of  the  Karst  (Fig.  114),  affords  poor  pastur- 
age and  only  small  areas  of  arable  land.  Stock  raising  and 
fishing  are  the  chief  piirsuits.  Nearly  everything  except 
food  is  imported ;  animals  and  their  products  are  the  sole 

industry.  About  $500,000  worth  of  oil  is  exported  every  year  in  addi- 
tion to  supplies  from  Persia,  Turkey,  and  other  eastern  countries.  The 
oil  being  very  expensive  is  likely  to  be  adulterated.  Rose  water  is 
water  tinctured  with  attar  of  roses  by  distillation. 

*  Observe  the  effect  upon  Bulgarian  trade  in  1899  of  two  successive 
poor  harvests  (p.  327). 


THE  BALKAN   PENINSULA   AND  ASIATIC  TUKKEY    323 

exports.  The  very  small  trade  is  with  Austria-Hungary 
and  Great  Britain.  Cetinje,  the  capital,  is  connected  with 
the  Austro-Hungarian  port  of  Cattaro  by  a  good  road. 

Greece  has  neither  coal,  wood,  water  power,  nor  capital  to 
encourage  the  development  of  large  enterprises.  The  coun- 
try has  many  deep  gulfs,  providing  excellent  harbors.  The 
Greeks  are  naturally,  therefore,  a  seafaring  people,  carry- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  trade  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
In  their  mountainous  country  they  enjoy  a  genial  climate, 
but  rain  falls  chiefly  in  winter,  which  prevents  large  agri- 
culture. There  are  other  influences  that  tend  to  keep  the 
country  poor ;  it  is  so  sparsely  populated  that  workmen  are 
hard  to  obtain,  many  foreigners  finding  employment  in 
mining  and  railroad  construction.  There  are  almost  no 
roads  except  mule  tracks ;  the  few  railroads  do  not  supply 
adequate  transportation.  Traffic  is  therefore  mainly  by 
vessels  along  the  coasts.  The  Corinth  Canal  (Fig.  26)  is  a 
great  convenience  to  home  and  foreign  shipping.  Grain, 
currants,  the  vine,  and  olives  are  the  stajales  of  agriculture, 
which  is  the  chief  resource,  though  only  one  sixth  of  the 
land  is  cultivated.  The  valleys  and  islands  have  small 
farms  planted  with  vegetables,  vines,  and  orange,  lemon, 
and  olive  trees.  The  wide  northern  plains  of  Thessaly  and 
other  plains  and  valleys  produce  fine  crops  of  grain.  The 
soil  is  excellent,  but  water  is  the  problem  of  tillage.  It  is 
often  found  near  the  surface,  and  is  supplied  to  the  crops 
from  wells  worked  by  crude  machinery ;  all  the  fruit  crops 
are  irrigated.  The  supply  of  grain  is  so  inadequate  that 
two  thirds  of  the  wheat  consumed  is  imported  from  llussia, 
Eumania,  and  Turkey.  As  most  of  the  animals  are  sheep 
and  goats,  butter  is  a  large  import.  Most  of  the  raw  silk 
produced  in  the  south  is  exported  to  France  for  manufacture. 

Mills  in  Piraeus  and  Athens  make  cotton  cloth  ;  coopers 
supply  wine  casks ;  ships  are  built  on  the  little  island  of 
Syra.  Machine  shops  at  Piraeus  build  engines  that  are  run 
by  British  coal ;  soap  making  is  important ;  women  in  tlicir 


324  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

homes  weave  cloth  and  carpets ;  thousands  of  men  make 
metal  and  leather  goods  in  their  small  shops.  These  house 
industries  are  well  developed  and  supply  the  poorer  classes 
with  most  of  their  needs.* 

As  the  kingdom  does  not  produce  sufficient  grain,  tim- 
ber, cloth,  yarn,  metals,  and  general  manufactures,  these 
articles,  together  with  coal  and  colonial  goods,  are  the 
largest  imports.  Currants,  wine,  olives,  tobacco,  and  fruits 
are  the  only  agricultural  products  of  importance  in  the 
export  trade,  currants  f  being  about  half  the  total  exports 
of  Greece.  Lead  and  zinc  ores  and  sponges  are  other  im- 
portant sales  abroad. 

Bad  government  in  European  Turkey  has  helped  to  cover 
its  fertile  plains  with  more  weeds  than  grain  or  grass.  This 
is  the  only  non-Christian  country  in  Europe.  Many  mil- 
lions of  Christians,  however,  live  in  Turkey.  The  Moham- 
medans comprise  scarcely  one  half  of  the  population. J 
Foreigners  in  Turkey  live  under  the  laws  of  their  respective 
countries,  which  are  administered  by  the  consuls  (p.  30). 

The  soil  is  fertile,  but  agriculture,  though  the  mainstay 
of  the  people,  is  in  a  most  backward  condition.     The  op- 

*  Athens,  the  political  and  intellectual  capital,  is  also,  with  its  port 
and  suburb  Piraeus,  the  industrial  and  commercial  center  of  the  king- 
dom. Pirseus  is  the  most  important  port.  Patras  is  the  port  for  cur- 
rant shipments.  Hermupolis  on  Syra  Island,  in  the  middle  of  the 
^gean,  is  a  coaling  station  and  large  trading  point. 

f  The  currant  is  a  small,  seedless  grape,  cultivated  and  dried  in 
southwestern  Greece  and  some  of  the  islands,  principally  Zante,  and 
used  in  cakes  and  puddings. 

I  The  Turks  never  assimilated  the  peoples  whom  they  conquered. 
Millions  of  Slavs  and  Greeks  in  Turkey  have  never  adopted  Islam  nor 
learned  the  Turkish  language.  The  failure  of  the  Turks  to  identify 
the  conquered  races  with  them  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  disintegration 
of  their  European  empire.  In  the  nineteenth  century  Turkey  lost 
Greece,  Servia,  Rumania,  and  Montenegro ;  it  still  has  nominal  suze- 
rainty over  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Crete,  without  any 
power,  however,  to  interfere  in  their  government. 


THE  BALKAN   PENINSULA  AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY    325 

pression  of  the  Christians,  ruinous  taxation,  and  lack  of 
roads  have  stifled  energy. 

Turkey  is  a  leading  market  for  foreign  foods  and  manu- 
factures. One  third  of  the  imports  are  foodstuffs  and  arti- 
cles of  luxury.  Turkey  once  commanded  European  mar- 
kets in  morocco  leather,  carpets,  and  silk  textiles,  but  it  no 
longer  competes  with  foreign  products ;  even  most  of  the 
fezes,  the  emblem  of  Turkish  nationality,  are  made  in 
Austria  and  other  countries.  Constantinople  and  Salonica 
have  a  few  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  mills,  but  textiles  are  still 
the  largest  imports.  House  industries  are  carried  on  in  a 
primitive  way. 

The  Turks  have  little  part  in  the  trade  of  their  coun- 
try, most  of  the  foreign  trade  being  in  the  hands  of  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Belgian  merchants.  Armenians  chiefly, 
and  also  Greek  and  Spanish  Jews,  are  the  merchants  and 
bankers,  yet  only  in  Constantinople  are  modern  banking 
and  credit  systems  a  part  of  business  facilities.  * 

The  grain,  fruits,  raw  silk,  tobacco,  wine,  perfumery, 
hides,  and  other  articles  that  Turkey  sells  abroad  pay  for 
about  one  half  of  the  textiles,  sugar,  coffee,  coal,  petroleum, 
iron,  etc.,  which  the  country  purchases.  There  are  no 
trade  statistics.     The  estimated  jDopulation  is  5,800, 000. f 

*  Constantinople  (Fig.  9),  built  around  its  magnificent  harbor,  the 
Golden  Horn,  stands  at  the  meeting  point  of  the  East  and  West  and 
commands  the  trade  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea. 
In  any  other  hands  than  those  of  the  Turks  it  would  become  one  of  the 
greatest  ports  in  the  world;  as  it  is,  the  movement  is  about  11,000.000 
tons  a  year,  three  fifths  of  which  is  under  the  British  flag.  Salonica  is 
the  port  of  western  Turkey,  and  on  the  most  direct  route,  via  the  inter- 
national railroad,  between  west  Europe  and  Greece.  The  Jews,  three 
fifths  of  its  population,  are  very  active  in  commerce.  Dedeagatseh, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Maritza  River,  exports  Bulgarian  wheat.  Adri- 
anople,  the  most  important  interior  town,  manufactures  attar  of  roses, 
silks,  and  carpets. 

I  Asiatic  Turkey  is  growing  in  iinporfance  with  the  extension  of 
railroads.     Smyrna,  the  most  important  city  of  Anatolia  (.Asia  Minor), 


891-'95. 

1899. 

79.0 

64.3 

59.5 

28.7 

1891-'95. 

1899. 

7.5 

8.9 

9.5 

12.7 

326  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

STATISTICS  FOR  THE   BALKAN  PENINSULA 
Rumania 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 
1881-'85. 

Imports 58 . 5 

Exports 44.0 

Imports  from  Leading  Countries.  1S99  (in  llillion  Dollars) 
Austria-Hungary.    Germany.    Great  Britain.    France.    Italy.    Turkey.    Belgium. 
18.4  17.5  11.5  4.3        3.1        2.5  2.0 

Population  (1899),  5,612,520. 
Servia 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 
1884-'88. 

Imports 8.0 

Exports , 7.5 

Population  (1899),  2,413,694. 

is,  next  to  Constantinople,  the  leading  port  of  the  Levant.  Like  Con- 
stantinople it  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  far  interior  of  Anatolia,  and 
is  the  outlet  for  many  of  its  exports.  Chief  among  the  manufactures 
are  the  famous  Smyrna  rugs  and  carpets  made  by  thousands  of  families 
in  the  interior  villages.  The  men  color  the  wool  with  which  the  women 
and  girls  make  fine  and  lasting  products.  Angora  is  the  native  home  of 
the  species  of  goat  whose  hair  (mohair)  is  exported  from  Constantinople. 
The  exports  include  the  acorn  cups  of  the  Valonia  oak  sent  from  the 
Levant  for  dyeing  and  tanning. 

Beirut,  the  chief  port  of  Syria,  has  a  railroad  to  Damascus,  the  largest 
city ;  a  railroad  also  extends  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem.  Syria  exports 
wheat  and  wool  and  imports  textiles  and  iron  goods.  Many  small  arti- 
cles are  made  to  sell  to  thousands  of  pilgrims.  Most  of  the  people  are 
farmers.  In  Mesopotamia  all  land  transport  is  by  mule  or  camel.  Bag- 
dad caravans  trading  with  Persia  and  the  Black  Sea :  all  manufactures 
are  for  home  consumption  ;  cereals  and  dates  are  the  largest  exports,  the 
dates  being  sent  all  over  the  world  from  Basra,  at  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  where  there  is  steam  communication  with  India  and  England. 
The  annual  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  the  burial  place  of  Mohammed,  give 
a  season  of  great  activity  to  Jedda,  its  port,  where  the  trade  in  supplies 
is  also  very  active.  Hodeida,  on  the  Red  Sea,  exports  a  part  of  the  coffee 
of  Yemen  known  as  Mocha  from  the  town  on  the  coast  that  formerly  ex- 
ported this  famous  coffee  bean.    Mocha  coffee  is  also  shipped  from  Aden. 


1891-'95. 

1899. 

16.5 

11.7 

15.5 

10.4 

THE   BALKAN   PENINSULA   AND  ASIATIC   TURKEY    327 

Bulgaria 

Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1880-'84. 

Imports 9.5 

Exports 8.0 

Population  (1893),  3,309,810. 

Greece 

Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1879-'83.  1891-'95.  1899. 

Imports 24.5  22.5  25. G 

Exports 13.5  17.0  18.9 

Population  (1896),  2,433,806. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

MEXICO 

Most  of  Mexico  stands  on  a  high  plateau.  Temperate 
and  even  frigid  influences  prevail  in  the  elevated  interior, 
though  tropical  heat  covers  the  low  coast  lands.  Alti- 
tude has  therefore  larger  effect  than  latitude  upon  busi- 
ness. ^Nearly  all  the  plants  found  between  the  equator 
arid  the  arctic  circle  grow  in  Mexico ;  the  hot  land  *  along 
the  narrow  coast  is  a  region  of  cotton,  henequen,  mahogany, 
logwood,  and  tropical  fruits  (Fig.  131).  Above  the  coastal 
zone,  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  in  elevation'^,  are  the  "  tem- 
jjerate  lands,"  corresponding  to  southern  Italy  in  vegetable 
products,  a  zone  of  subtropical  plants,  such  as  the  cactus, 
on  which  the  cochineal  insect  feeds  (p.  113),  besides  maize, 
beans,  and  other  food  plants,  and  tobacco.  Above  6,000 
feet,  on  the  plateau  proper,  are  the  "  cool  lands,"  bordered 
by  mountain  ranges,  a  region  of  wide,  natural  pastures,  and 
of  wheat,  barley,  apples,  and  many  other  products  of  the 
cooler  latitudes,  with  deep  valleys  here  and  there  where  cot- 
ton and  other  subtropical  products  are  grown.  Most  of  the 
inhabitants  live  in  this  central  region,  where  agriculture 
and  mining  are  chiefly  carried  on.  The  extreme  north  has 
four  seasons  in  the  year,  but  south  of  latitude  28°  the  sea- 
sons are  divided  into  the  wet,  from  May  till  October,  and 
the  dry,  from  October  till  May. 

The  structure  of  the  land  and  the  resulting  climate 

*  The  oppressive  heat  in  the  liarbor  of  La  Paz,  Lower  California, 
led  Cortez  to  name  that  region  California — Hot  Furnace. 
328 


MEXICO 


329 


present  some  impediments  to  industry  and  trade.  Thus 
the  mountain  ranges  bordering  the  plateau  prevent  wet 
winds  from  reaching  the  interior,  so  that  most  agriculture 
is  carried  on  only  with  the  aid  of  irrigation.     As  irrigation 


J  Ca«te\   Saltillo 
oDuranptf-x 

iS^  Lui3  l\to 
San  Bla=Wv\^f  q      \ 

Cotton 

Coffee 
flV    Tobacco 
I  ^-  '  Henequen 
CD  Limit  of  Wheat 
^~Z^  Chief  ilaize  Growing 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
0        100      200      300      400     500 


Fig.  131.— Agriculture  in  Mexico. 

is  costly,  there  are  fewer  small  farms  in  proportion  to  popu- 
lation than  in  the  United  States ;  north  of  the  city  of 
Mexico  there  are  vast  unimproved  areas  almost  uninhabited, 
because  capital  and  engineering  skill  have  not  yet  led  water 
from  the  mountains  to  fit  the  rich  soil  for  tillage.  Com- 
merce must  depend  entirely  upon  the  railroads,  as  none  of 
the  rivers  is  available  for  navigation.  Access  to  the  ports 
is  difficult  on  account  of  the  great  differences  in  elevation.* 
The  harbors  on  the  Gulf  coast  are  naturally  poor  (Fig. 
132).  XdY'A  Cruz  is  merely  an  o\)vn  roiulsiead,  altliougli 
large  sums  have  been  spent  to  make  tliat  port  and  Tam- 


*  Trains  from  "Vera  Cruz  climb  8,000  feet  to  reach  the  city  of 
Mexico. 


330 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


pico  available  for  the  needs  of  commerce.     The  best  ports 
are  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  they  do  not  front  the  great 


Fitr.  133.— On  the  Atlantic  coast  Matamoras  is  a  frontier  town  with  a  poor  harbor 
(Bagdad),  admitting  only  small  vessels.  Tampico  accommodates  steamers  draw- 
ing 24  feet ;  as  it  is  a  railroad  center,  much  of  the  foreign  trade,  particularly  im- 
ports, pass  through  the  city.  Vera  Cruz  js  the  most  important  port  of  Mexico, 
but  is  unhealthful  ;  most  exports  are  shipped  from  this  port,  which  has  regular 
connections  with  New  York,  New  Orleans,  Havana,  and  St.  Nazaire,  France  ;  the 
movement  is  about  700,000  tons  a  year.  Coatzacoalcos  is  a  small  port  at  the  north 
end  of  the  Tehuantepec  isthmus  railroad.  Carmen  is  a  shipping  point  for 
mahogany  and  dyewoods  ;  and  Campeche  for  logwood.  Progreso  is  the  port  of 
the  industrial  and  trading  town  of  Merida  ;  most  of  the  henequen  of  Yucatan  is 
shipped  from  Sisal,  northwest  of  Merida.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  La  Paz^Jbe  chief 
town  of  Lower  California,  exports  fruit.  Guaymas.ji_thriving  town  with  a  good 
harbor,  connected  by  rail  with  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  exports  metals  and 
hides  and  imports  mining  supplies.  Altata  is  the  port  of  Culiacan,  a  supply  sta- 
tion for  the  silver  mines.  Mazatlan,  with  a  shallow  harbor  and  no  protection 
against  the  west  wind,  exports  metals  and  wood  and  imports  manufactures.  San 
Bias,  with  a  fair  harbor,  is  the  busiest  port  between  ^Mazatlan  and  Acapulco. 
Manzanillo  is  the  port  of  the  coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton  plantations  on  the  plains 
of  Coifma.  Acapuljiff,  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world,  a  coaling  point  for 
steamers,  has  as  yet  but  little  trade.  Salina  Cruz  is  the  southern  terminus  of  the 
railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  Much  of  the  commerce  between 
.  Mexico  and  the  United  States  passes  through  the  railroad  towns  on  the  northern 
frontier,  mainly  Ciudad  Juarez  and  Ciudad  Porflrio  Diaz. 


MEXICO  331 

world  market ;  but  as  they  are  shut  off  by  mountains  from 
the  most  populous  and  busiest  parts  of  the  country  they 
have  only  a  small  share  in  the  trade. 

Most  of  the  agricultural  products  are  consumed  at  home 
(Fig.  131).  The  wheat  raised  on  the  high  table-land  is 
somewhat  inferior  to  that  of  the  United  States  both  in 
quality  and  quantity  per  acre.  Maize  and  beans,  produced 
in  enormous  quantities,  are  the  staple  food  of  the  people.,, 
All  the  cotton  raised  is  spun  in  the  mills ;  the  best  quality 
of  fiber  is  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Afapulco.  One  of 
the  great  exports  is  henequen  (sisal  fiber),  used  for  sacking, 
cordage,  and  binder's  twine  (p.  103).  The  sales  to  the 
United  States  are  making  Yucatan  one  of  the  wealthiest 
states  in  Mexico.  Superior  vanilla,  raised  on  plantations 
mainly  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  is  also  a  large  export. 
The  banana  thrives  everywhere  on  the  lower  mountain 
slopes,  and  the  home  trade  is  a  source  of  much  profit. 
Oranges,  lemons,  tobacco,  coffee,  cacao,  rubber,  and  other 
southern  products  are  very  successful,  but  have  not  entered 
largely  into  the  world's  trade.  One  of  the  important  plants 
is  maguey,  the  American  aloe,  from  which  pulque,  the  na- 
tional alcoholic  beverage,  is  made.  Considering  the  vast 
extent  of  fertile  lands  in  Mexico,  the  republic  is  as  yet 
utilizing  only  a  small  part  of  her  agricultural  resources  in 
foreign  trade. 

Animal  raising  is  growing  in  importance.  It  is  still,  how- 
ever, in  the  early  stages  of  development.  Many  large  es- 
tates or  haciendas  on  the  plateau  are  devoted  to  raising 
cattle,  mostly  of  the  long-liorned  Mexican  type,  tbough  tlie 
stock  is  being  improved  by  importations  from  the  United 
States.  Hides  and  live  cattle  are  exported  to  this  country. 
Dairy  farming  is  profitable  near  the  large  cities,  where  milk 
and  butter  sell  at  high  prices.  The  wool  crop  is  coarse 
and  inferior,  so  that  liome  mills  import  much  wool  of  finer 
grades,  while  well-to-do  Mexicans  wear  imported  woolen 
cloths.     The  horses  are  small,  but  hardy  and  spirited.     The 


332  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

coast  waters  teem  with  fish  ;  beds  of  pearl  oysters  in  the 
Gulf  of  California  supply  a  lucrative  industry.* 

Forests  have  been  recklessly  wasted.  Many  mountain  slopes 
have  been  denuded  of  their  timber  to  supply  the  mines. 
Much  lumber  is  imported  mainly  from  the  Pacific  coast  of 
the  United  States.  Mexico  in  return  sells  large  quantities 
of  mahogany  and  dyewoods  to  other  countries. 
V  Metals  are  the  largest  resource  (Fig.  133).  Mexico  is 
07ie  of  the  ri^i^st  mining  countries  in  the  world  (Figs.  68, 
70). t  More  tliln  half  the  silver  has  been  produced  on 
the  plateau  in  the  three  districts  of  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas 
and  San  Luis  Potosi.  The  Beta  Madre  lode  of  Guanajuato 
alone  produced  $252,000,000  between  1556  and  1803.  '  Lead 
associated  with  silver  is  a  large  product.  Gold  is  found  for 
the  most  part  not  on  the  plateau,  but  on  the  slopes  facing 
the  Pacific,  and  ajjparently  in  greatest  abundance  near  the 
United  States  border,  though  it  exists  throughout  the 
mountains.  Gold  mining  is  still  in  its  infancy  in  most  of 
these  regions.  Iron  ore  of  fine  quality  is  in  inexhaustible 
supply.  Fig.  133  shows  the  iron  areas  that  are  attracting 
most  attention.  Coal  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, but  comparatively  little  is  yet  mined.  Mexican  petro- 
leum is  refined  at  Tuxpan  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Pure 
sulphur  from  the  crater  of  Mount  Popocatepetl  is  exported 
from  Puebla.     Copper,  mercury,  and  tin  are  also  important 

*  Pearls  are  obtained  chiefly  from  the  pearl  oyster,  which  is  in 
largest  supply  in  the  Persian  Gulf  (Bahrein  Islands),  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  off  the  west  coast  of  Ceylon  and  the 
north  coast  of  Australia.  The  product  is  not  only  pearls,  but  also  pearl 
or  oyster  shell  (mother-of-pearl),  which  ranges  in  price  from  $300  to 
$900  a  ton.  The  oysters  are  taken  from  a  depth  of  120  feet,  with  the 
aid  of  the  diving  dress,  though  most  are  gathered  from  depths  of  40  to 
50  feet. 

f  The  total  production  of  Mexican  gold  and  silver  mines  between 
1521  and  1875  is  estimated  at  $3,614,000,000.  The  capitalized  value  of 
Mexican  mines  is  about  $375,000,000.  There  are  1,700  mines,  of  which 
1,300  are  silver  and  gold,  employing  102,000  men. 


0^ 


MEXICO 


333 


products.  As  the  precious  metals,  chiefly  silver,  are  the 
larger  part  of  the  total  exports,  many  steamers  loaded  with 
merchandise  for  Mexico  can  not  secure  return  loads  and 
consequently  visit  United  States  ports  for  cargoes. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 
6       ito      200     300      400     500 


Fio.  133.— Mining  in  Mexico. 

Many  towns  are  supply  stations  for  the  mining  centers.  Chiliuahua  was  founded 
over  three  hundred  years  ago  in  a  rich  silver-mining  district.  Dnrango.  renowned 
for  its  rich  silver  group,  has  cotton  and  woolen  mills' and  distilleries,  owned 
mostly  by  Germans.  Guanajuato  smelts  the  silver  ores  of  the  Beta  Madre  mines, 
which  yield  about  $5,000,000  silver  a  year.  Zacatecas,  famous  for  its  silver  mines, 
has  potteries  and  cigar  manufactures.  San  Luis  Potosi  (Fig.  132).  a  railroad-junc- 
tion point  west  of  Tampico,  has  become  one  of  the  largest  cities  through  its  mines 
and  its  trade  in  cattle,  hides,  and  tallow. 


Mexico,  as  well  as  all  Latin  America,  is  poor  in  industries. 

The  products  of  these  countries  are  chiefly  raw  materials  ; 
most  industrial  products,  particularly  articles  of  luxury  and 
fine  quality,  are  imported.  The  lack  of  political  stability 
has  had  an  important  influence  in  preventing  industrial 
advancement.  Mexico,  Argentina,  and  Chile  have  made 
the  largest  progress,  Mexico  in  particular  extending  her 
manufactures  to  many  branches,  so  that  Nie  imports  are 


334  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

decreasing.  More  than  100  cotton  mills  consume  all  the 
home  cotton,  import  from  Texas  half  the  cotton  they  spin, 
and  supply  most  of  the  needs  of  the  country.  Over  twenty 
woolen  mills  make  a  variety  of  coarse  fabrics.  About 
3,000  sugar  mills  supply  the  local  demand.  Paper,  porce- 
lain, soap,  beer  brewing,  chocolate,  glass,  and  drugs  are 
among  the  other  industries. 

Railroads  reach  all  the  principal  cities  and  the  commercial 
and  mining  centers  (Fig.  132).  Connections  are  made  at 
several  points  with  the  United  States  lines,  so  that  the  city 
of  Mexico  is  now  easily  reached  from  all  parts  of  this  coun- 
try. The  capital  city  is  the  center  of  the  wholesale  trade, 
much  of  which  is  in  the  hands  of  German  merchants  and 
bankers.  Nearly  all  the  industries  of  the  country  are  repre- 
sented in  its  numerous  shops  and  factories.* 

The  exports  are  larger  than  the  imports.  The  greater 
part  of  the  exports  are  precious  metals ;  the  other  impor- 
tant products  sold  abroad  are  henequen,  coffee,  cattle,  to- 
bacco, tropical  woods,  hides,  lead,  copper,  and  vanilla.  The 
principal  imports  are  linen,  woolen  and  cotton  fabrics,  hard- 
ware, and  machinery.  Half  of  the  imports  are  purchased 
from  the  United  States ;  England,  France,  and  Germany 
supplying  most  of  the  remainder. 

STATISTICS  FOR   MEXICO 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars,  Gold) 

1881-'85.  1891-'95.  Fiscal  year  1899-1900. 

Imports 30.8  38.0  61.3 

Exports 34.1  37.5  75.0 

*  Guadalajara,  one  of  the  largest  cities,  is  famous  for  its  potteries, 
and  has  cloth  and  other  factories.  Chilpancingo,  south  of  the  city  of 
Mexico,  is  the  center  of  a  rich  grain-raising  district.  Oaxaca,  one  of 
the  garden  spots  of  Mexico,  has  tobacco  and  chocolate  works.  Monte- 
rey is  a  railroad  junction  and  the  largest  town  of  northern  Mexico. 
Aguasealientes  has  hot  springs  and  woolen  mills;  its  fair  in  December 
distributes  much  merchandise  through  the  interior.  Puebla,  one  of  the 
largest  cities,  has  many  industries. 


MEXICO  335 

Principal  Exports,  1899-1900  (in  Million  Dollars,  Gold) 

Minerals.  Vegetable  products.  Animal  products.  Manufactures. 

42.0  25.4  5.3  1.4 

Silver  is  the  monetary  standard,  with  the  dollar  (value 
in  1896,  53^  cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage.  The  metric  33^8- 
tem  is  legal,  but  the  libra  (1.01  pounds),  the  quintal  (101.6 
pounds),  and  the  vara  (33  inches)  are  commonly  used. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

CENTRAL    AMERICA 

Most  Central  Americans  live  on  the  Pacific  slope.  Their 
large  towns  and  plantations  occupy  a  long  and  narrow  zone 
parallel  with  the  Pacific  shores  and  not  very  far  from  them. 
The  western  ports  have  most  of  the  trade ;  civilization,  in 
fact,  has  mainly  developed  in  the  west,  while  the  Atlantic 
slope  is  largely  wild  and  unoccupied.  These  facts  are  ex- 
plained by  the  physical  conditions  :  the  hot  lowlands  of  the 
east  receive  the  tremendous  rainfall  brought  by  the  moist 
trade  winds  ;  heat  and  rain  produce  almost  impassable  virgin 
forests,  inhabited  only  by  scattered  bands  of  Indians  (pp. 
4,  5) ;  the  forests  are  rich  in  hardwoods  and  rubber,  but 
too  unhealthful  to  be  the  home  of  white  men.  In  the 
west,  however,  rise  mountain  ranges  and  jjlains  among  them, 
protected  by  mountains  from  excessive  rainfall  and  having 
a  cooler  climate  as  a  result  of  their  elevation.  As  the 
Pacific  coast  has  a  comparatively  moderate  rainfall  the 
conditions  favorable  to  planting  and  other  industries  are 
found  along  that  coast  and  on  the  plateaus  among  the 
mountains.* 

India  rubber,  mahogany,  rosewood,  dyewoods,  cacao,  and 
bananas  grow  on  the  hot  lands  to  an  elevation  of  2,000 
feet ;  coffee  plantations  are  scattered  over  the  temperate 
lands  from  2,000  to   6,000  feet ;    most  of  the  grain  and 

*  The  average  rainfall  at'Greytown,  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Nica- 
ragua, is   297  inches  a  year,  while  on  the  plateau  at  Granada,  among 
the  mountains,  it  is  65  inches. 
336 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  337 

northern  vegetables  are  raised  in  the  cool  lands  above  6,000 
feet.  Thus  Central  America,  though  wholly  within  the 
tropics,  is  enabled  by  its  great  diversity  of  surface  to  raise 
the  characteristic  products  of  every  climate.  As  the  main 
water  divide  is  near  the  Pacific,  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic 
slope  have  the  longer  and  gentler  course,  some  of  them 
being  navigable  for  a  considerable  distance.  Eailroads 
have  been  built  from  some  of  the  ports  to  the  uplands 
where  coffee  is  grown.  Among  the  commercial  disadvan- 
tages are  the  poor  common  roads,  traversed  by  two-wheeled 
ox  carts,  the  earthquakes  which  sometimes  inflict  great 
damage,  the  poverty  of  the  masses,  the  small  development 
of  manufacturing,  and  the  internal  political  disturbances. 

Guatemala  is  the  most  important  of  the  five  republics ;  it 
sells  more  to  foreign  lands  and  buys  more  from  them  than  any 
other  state  (Fig.  134).  With  a  very  narrow  frontage  on  the 
Atlantic,  most  of  the  country  is  an  elevated  plateau.  Cof- 
fee, the  most  important  crop,  grown  mostly  on  large  plan-, 
tations  by  well-to-do  planters,  thrives  from  the  Pacific  to 
the  center  around  Coban.  Maize  and  black  beans,  the  staff 
of  life  throughout  Central  America,  grow  everywhere.  The 
crops  indicated  in  Fig.  134  supply  most  needs  except  tex- 
tiles and  flour.  All  the  sugar  is  consumed  at  home,  the 
rum  distilleries  using  much  of  it.  The  cotton  fields  and 
the  high,  dry  sheep  pastures  supply  fibers  for  the  spinners 
and  weavers  who  ply  their  trades  in  the  towns.  Cattle  on 
the  plateaus  yield  hides  for  export.  Many  minerals  await 
development,  but  mining  is  in  its  infancy,  the  most  impor- 
tant being  placer-gold  washing  in  the  south,  supplying 
metal  for  a  small  quantity  of  home-made  gold  ornaments. 
Straw,  wooden  and  earthen  wares,  tobacco,  and  leather  are 
other  industries. 

The  largest  river,  the  Motagua,  is  navigable  at  high 

water  for  100  miles ;  a  railroad  is  building  up  its  valley  to 

Guatemala,  the  capital,  which  is  already  connected  by  rail 

with  the  Pacific  ports  of  San  Jose,  the  leading  port,  and 

32 


338 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Champerico,  which  are  merely  roadsteads.  Much  of  the 
rubber,  bananas,  and  other  resources  are  still  unavailable 
for  lack  of  transport.* 

Guatemala  loads  in  the  exports  of  coffee.  This  com- 
modity is  the  largest  item  in  Central  American  shipments. 
No  other  Guatemalan  export  is  of  much  importance,  though 

*  The  Atlantic  ports,  Livingston  and  Puerto  Barrios,  and  the  two 
Pacific  ports  ship  large  quantities  of  coffee ;  Guatemala,  standing  high 
and  sheltered  from  the  trade  winds,  is  the  largest  city  in  Central 
America  and  the  center  of  the  Guatemalan  trade  ;  Quezaltenango, 
built  of  lava  blocks  quarried  at  the  foot  of  a  volcano,  makes  woolen 
and  cotton  cloth ;  Coban,  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  most  fertile  and 
healthful  districts,  is  a  busy  trading  place,  and  sends  coffee  to  Living- 
ston for  export. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  339 

considerable  quantities  of  bananas,  hides,  rubber,  mahogany, 
and  cedar  are  sold  abroad.  About  an  eighth  of  the  coffee 
comes  to  the  United  States  and  the  remainder  is  sent  to 
Europe,  Germany  being  the  largest  buyer.  Cotton  goods, 
hardware,  flour,  and  wine  are  the  largest  imports.  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  having  the  largest  part  in  the  import 
trade.* 

Honduras,  though  rich  in  resources,  has  little  commercial 
development.  The  country  ha.-:  a  large  Atlantic  and  very 
small  Pacific  frontage.  Its  large  extent  and  sparse  popula- 
tion make  it  difficult  to  secure  sufficient  labor.  Fully  half 
of  the  land,  lacking  population  and  transport,  is  still  a  vir- 
gin waste,  f 

The  agricultural  products  scarcely  met  the  local  demand 
until  recent  years,  when  it  was  found  that  bananas,  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  other  fruit  might  profitably  be  exported  from  the 
Bay  Islands  and  the  north  coast  to  the  United  States.  A 
single  schooner  was  in  this  trade  in  1883,  while  to-day  sev- 
eral steamers  carry  a  large  amount  of  fruit  to  the  United 
States  every  year.  The  success  of  the  fruit  trade  has  stim- 
ulated the  opening  of  coffee  and  other  plantations.  Many 
hides  and  cattle  are  exported.  The  Atlantic  forests  abound 
with  fine  timber,  Honduras  mahogany  being  especially 
famous.  The  country  is  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  which  are 
the  leading  exports ;  X  cattle,  fruits,  timber,  cacao,  tobacco, 


*  The  imports  from  the  leading  countries  in  1899  were  valued  at 
|2,094,fXX»,  the  L'nited  States  sending  $l,106,0f)0;  exports  |8.:J70,000, 
the  United  States  taking  $1.106,f//J.     Population  (1897;,  1.535.0:^2. 

f  It  takes  a  mule  train  three  weeks  to  travel  V>etween  Puerto  Cortez 
on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  port  of  Aroapala,  a  distance  which 
might  easily  be  covered  in  half  a  day  if  the  projected  railroad  between 
those  ports  were  built.  Mahogany,  sarsaparilla,  and  hides  are  carried 
by  mules  from  the  upper  Patuca  River  to  Trujillo  for  shipment. 

X  Amapaia,  one  of  the  best  natural  harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast,  is 
nearest  the  mines,  and  metals  are  therefore  among  the  largest  exports. 
The  Atlantic  ports,  Trujillo,  CeiVja,  and  Puerto  Cortez,  have  connec- 
tions with  the  Uoited  States.     Ceiba  is  engaged  chiefly  in  the  fruit  trade. 


340  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

and  cofEee  are  other  important  exports.  The  imports  in- 
clude cotton  goods  and  hardware,  almost  the  entire  trade 
being  with  the  United  States.  * 

British  Honduras,  covered  with  forests,  exports  chiefly 
their  products.  Mahogany,  logwood,  and  other  timber  is 
felled  in  the  interior  and  floated  down  the  rivers,  the  quan- 
tity available  for  export  depending  on  the  amount  of  water 
in  the  streams  to  float  the  log  drives.  Bananas  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  also  sent  to  the  United  States.  Most  of  the  tim- 
ber goes  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  fruit  to  New  Orleans. 
England  and  the  United  States  divide  the  imports,  f 

Salvador  is  the  smallest  country  in  America.  Fronting 
wholly  on  the  Pacific  coast,  practically  all  of  it  is  available 
for  settlement ;  it  is  therefore  more  densely  peopled  than 
any  of  the  other  republics.  The  products  distinguishing 
it  from  the  other  countries  are  balsam  of  Peru,  valued  in 
medicine,  J  and  indigo,  once  the  largest  export,  but  now 
surpassed  by  coffee,  which  i§  three  fifths  of  the  value  of  the 
total  sales  abroad.  Salvador  has  the  largest  coffee  export 
except  Guatemala.  There  are  hundreds  of  sugar  planta- 
tions. Cattle,  horses,  and  mules  are  imported  from  Hon- 
duras, as  stock  raising  does  not  fill  the  demand.  The  min- 
ing industry  is  unimportant,  though  some  silver  is  exported. 
San  Salvador,  the  capital,  is  the  center  of  trade.  Santa 
Ana,  next  in  size,  owes  its  prosperity  to  coffee  and  sugar 
planting.  San  Miguel  is  a  trading  center.  San  Vincente 
has  fairs  at  which  many  commodities  are  exchanged.  Most 
of  the  exports  are  shipped  through  La  Libertad  and  Aca- 

Tegucigalpa,  the  capital  and  largest  town,  is  in  the  gold  and  silver 
region  ;  Comayagua  is  a  cattle-raising  center;  Jutigalpa  is  noted  for  its 
placer-gold  diggings. 

*  The  foreign  trade  (estimated)  in  1898  was :  Exports,  $1,900,000 ; 
imports,  $1,300,000.     Population  (1898),  about  400,000. 

t  Population  (1898),  34,747. 

J  Balsam  of  Peru  was  so  called  because  the  Spaniards  used  to  carry 
it  to  Callao,  Peru,  for  shipment  to  Spain.  It  grows  on  the  coast  plain 
between  La,  Libertad  and  Acajutla, 


CENTRAL  AMERICA  341 

jutla,  though  La  Union,  on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  has  the 
best  harbor.  Coffee,  indigo,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  silver  are 
the  principal  exports  ;  textiles,  hardware,  flour,  and  firearms 
are  the  chief  imports.  About  half  the  imports  come  from 
England ;  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  France  follow- 
ing; the  exports  to  these  countries  are  about  two  thirds  of 
the  total  trade.* 

Nicaragua's  resources  are  but  little  developed.  The  east 
is  covered  with  great  forests.  Civilization,  centered  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  does  not  extend  more  than  100  miles  inland. 
Coffee,  the  principal  product,  is  grown  around  Leon, 
Granada,  and  Managua,  where  nearly  the  whole  product  is 
raised.  Large  areas  near  the  east  coast  are  adapted  for  the 
banana,  but  the  only  plantations  are  along  the  Rama  (Blue- 
fields)  Eiver,  which  alone  provides  a  highway  to  the  sea, 
the  river  being  navigable  by  steamers  for  65  miles.  The 
forest  wealth  is  little  developed.  Wild-rubber  plants,  how- 
ever, have  been  so  recklessly  destroyed  that  the  exportation 
of  rubber,  except  from  plantations,  has  been  prohibited  till 
1907.  Many  cattle  graze  on  the  northwest  plateau,  and 
hides  are  an  important  export. 

Greytown  and  Bluefields  are  the  Atlantic  ports,  but 
Grey  town  is  no  longer  accessible  for  large  vessels.  Corinto 
and  San  Juan  del  Sur  are  the  Pacific  coast  ports,  most  of 
the  trade  passing  tlirough"Corinto,  which  jsjaetter  protected 
and  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  large  interior  towns, 
Granada,  Masaya,  Managua,  Leon,  and  Chinandega.  As  the 
settled  part  of  the  country  is  almost  inaccessible  from  the 
Atlantic  coast,  the  trade  passes  between  Corinto  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  f 

*  The  exports  to  the  United  States  in  1899  were  estinmted  at  $1,- 
284,000;  imports  from  tlie  United  States  (from  our  Treasury  returns), 
$634,600.     Population  (1884),  803,534. 

+  Fig.  134  indicates  the  route  of  the  proposed  canal :  By  canal  from 
Greytown  to  the  San  Juan  River  ;  the  river  to  Lake  Nicaragua  ;  canal 
from  the  lake  to  Brito  (p.  44). 


342  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  principal  exports  are  coffee,  gums,  hides,  timber, 
bananas,  and  cattle.  The  United  States  takes  about  half 
of  the  exports,  followed  by  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
France.  Most  of  the  imports,  textiles,  hardware,  flour,  and 
other  articles,  come  from  the  United  States  and  England.* 

Costa  Rica  excels  in  the  quality  of  its  coffee.  It  brings  a 
high  price  in  foreign  markets.  ^S^early  a  third  of  the  popu- 
lation live  on  the  dry  side  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
largest  coffee  plantations  are  scattered  for  50  miles  around 
San  Jose,  the  capital. f  Cattle  thrive  on  the  uplands, 
though  not  enough  meat  is  produced  for  home  consump- 
tion. Puerto  Limon,  the  ^Atlantic  port,  is  connected  with 
San  Jose  by  rail.  The  Pacific  port  is  Punta  Arenas.  Cof- 
fee is  about  half  the  exports,  a  third  of  the  crop  going  to 
England;  then  come  bananas,  hides,  cedar,  gold,  rubber, 
and  tortoise-shell.  The  imports  are  hardware  and  general 
manufactures,  the  United  States  leading  in  this  trade.  J 

*  Estimated  exports  in  1899,  $3,250,000 ;  imports,  ^2,000,000. 
Population  (1895),  380,000. 

f  When  the  coffee  berry  is  ripe  in  December  all  the  men,  women, 
and  children  available  pick  the  crop.  The  berries  are  washed,  then 
dried  in  the  sun  and  taken  to  factories,  where  the  crop  is  prepared  by 
modern  machinery  for  market.  Most  of  the  coffee  is  bought  by  agents 
of  foreign  firms  several  months  before  the  harvest. 

If.  Costa  Rica's  export  trade  in  1899  was  estimated  at  $4,900.000 ; 
imports,  $4,136,000.  Population  (1894),  253,040.  Complete  commercial 
statistics  for  Central  America  are  not  available.  Silver  is  the  monetary 
standard  in  all  the  republics,  with  the  peso  or  dollar  (value  about  49 
cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage. 


CHAPTEE  XXXIII 

VENEZUELA,   THE    GUIANAS,    AND    BRAZIL 

The  Atlantic  slope  of  South  America  is  of  much  greater 
commercial  importance  than  the  Pacific  slope  (Fig.  23).  It 
includes  most  of  the  continent ;  it  has  the  best  harbors ; 
its  rivers  provide  nearly  all  the  interior  navigation ;  the 
products  of  its  forests,  grazing  lands,  and  farms  are  much 
more  valuable  than  the  commodities  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

Venezuela  has  vast  resources  and  small  population.  Lack- 
ing sufficient  labor,  its  plantations  are  poorly  tilled  ;  large, 
fertile  areas  are  unoccupied ;  the  donkey  and  mule  are  the 
sole  means  of  carrying  merchandise  between  the  coast  rail- 
roads and  the  people  of  the  far  interior.  As  more  inhab- 
itants are  needed,  Venezuela  offers  special  inducements  to 
foreign  immigration  (p.  36). 

The  republic  has  hot,  temperate,  and  cool  zones  accord- 
ing to  elevation,  each  having  its  characteristic  products. 
In  the  northwest  are  lowlands  (Fig.  135),  very  liot  and 
unheal thful,  producing  much  cacao.  South  and  east  of 
the  lowlands  are  high  mountain  ranges,  skirting  the  sea 
from  Valencia  to  Caracas,  with  plantations  in  the  valleys 
where  nearly  all  the  agriculture  is  centered.  The  inhab- 
itants live  chiefly  among  these  mountains,  where  the  cli- 
mate is  comparatively  healthful.  The  llanos,  or  great 
plains,  extending  south  of  the  mountains,  though  hot  and 
malarious,  provide  grazing  for  millions  of  cattle.  The 
high  plains  south  of  the  Orinoco  are  also  unheal  thful, 
and  yield  little  except  forest  products  and  gold. 

343 


344 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Coffee  is  the  main  staple  of  wealth.  Caracas,  Valencia, 
and  other  important  towns  are  in  the  midst  of  the  largest 
coffee  *  districts.  Xine  tenths  of  the  crop,  which  averages 
55,000  tons,  is  shipped  to  Europe  and  the  United  States. 


VENEZUELA, 
THE  GriAXAS 


Fig.  1.35. 


Cacao,  produced  in  the  torrid  lowland  and  the  lowest 
parts  of  the  valleys,  is  the  second  largest  agricultural 
export,  seven  eighths  of  the  crop  being  sold  abroad. 
These  industries  are  embarrassed  by  the  frequent  revolu- 
tions which  restrict  the  investment  of  capital  in  plant- 
ing, f  The  importation  of  sugar  is  prohibited  by  law, 
with  the  result  that  all  the  coarse  brown  sugar,  the  only 


*  The  bush  grows  in  the  shade  of  trees  to  avert  the  blasting  effects 
of  the  sun.  When  ready  for  market  the  coffee  is  sent  on  donkeys  and 
mules  to  the  chief  commercial  centers,  where  it  is  purchased  by  foreign 
agents  and  forwarded  by  rail  to  the  northern  seaports. 

f  The  British  minister  to  one  of  the  South  American  republics  long 
had  in  his  office  two  water  colors,  one  showing  a  coffee  plantation  at 
8  A.  M.,  everybody  happy  and  work  in  full  progress,  the  other  show- 
ing the  same  plantation  at  5  p.  m.,  with  dead  and  wounded  men  on  all 
sides. 


VENEZUELA,   THE   GUI  ANAS,    AND   BRAZIL        345 

quality  produced,  is  sold  in  the  country  at>  high  prices. 
Tobacco  is  insufficient  for  home  consumption.  Havana 
cigars  are  an  important  import,  as  domestic  cigars  are  not 
well  made. 

Cattle  raising  is  next  in  importance  to  agriculture.  The 
llanos  (Fig.  135),  nearly  as  large  as  Texas,  are  covered  with 
rich  grasses  that  would  feed  many  millions  of  cattle,  but 
civil  wars  have  interfered  severely  with  the  industry.  The 
cattle  are  mostly  long-horned,  small-bodied  animals,  which 
are  driven  in  great  numbers  to  the  mountain  towns  for 
beef,  but  are  worth  little  for  export  except  for  hides.* 

Among  the  forest  products  are  rubber,  tropical  woods, 
and  tonka  beans,  f  which  yield  considerable  exports. 

Gold  is  the  only  mineral  of  importance  exported.  It  comes 
chiefly  from  El  Callao  district  in  Yuruari  (Fig.  135),  where 
the  placer  diggings  have  been  nearly  worked  out,  and  quartz 
crushing  has  not  yet  been  developed.  Later  discoveries  of 
gold  nearer  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  on  the  Orinoco,  and  else- 
where bid  fair  to  keep  up  the  exports.  | 

Manufacturing  is  only  for  the  most  common  needs.  Thus 
soap  made  from  cocoanut  oil  and  candles  from  imported 
stearin  are  important,  because  high  duties  give  the  local 
products  a  monopoly  in  cheap  grades.  Matches,  straw 
goods,  rum,  feather  flowers,  cheap  hats,  shoes,  and  sole 
leather  are  other  articles  prodiiced.  Practically  no  manu- 
factures are  exported,  but  they  comprise  most  of  the 
imports. 

*  Some  cattle,  driven  south  to  the  Orinoco,  are  shipped  to  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico. 

\  The  tonka  bean,  which  is  used  for  perfuiiiinp  purposes,  is  the 
seed  of  a  tall  tree  growing  in  Venezuela  and  the  Guianas. 

X  Much  copper  has  been  exported  from  Aroa  through  the  port  of 
Tucacas,  but  the  output  is  now  small.  Coal  mined  near  Barcelona 
is  used  to  some  extent  by  shipping,  but  more  is  imported  from  Cardiff. 
Marble  of  a  superior  quality  is  quarried  near  Puerto  C'abello.  The  pearl 
fisheries  at  Margarita  island  are  again  becoming  important  (1901). 


346  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  commercial  centers  among  the  mountains  are  connected 
by  rail  with  their  ports  (Fig.  135).  A  railroad  Hue,  passing 
through  the  heart  of  the  best  agricultural  regions,  unites 
Caracas,  the  capital  and  center  of  the  largest  trade,  with 
Valencia.  A  number  of  steamship  lines  ply  between  the 
northern  ports  and  the  United  States  and  Europe.* 

The  annual  value  of  imports  is  the  barometer  of  Venezuelan 
prosperity.  The  reason  is  because  all  breadstuffs,  cottons, 
woolens,  kerosene,  and  many  other  articles  of  every-day  use 
are  obtained  from  abroad.  If  there  is  a  serious  falling  off 
in  imports  of  these  essentials  of  comfort  the  country  is  not 
prosperous.  The  United  States  sends  flour,  lard,  kerosene, 
hardware,  and  cotton  textiles,  all  of  which  pay  heavy  duties  in 
Venezuela,  while  Venezuelan  coffee,  cacao,  and  skins  are  ad- 
mitted free  into  this  country.  The  imports  from  the  United 
States  head  the  list  in  value,  England  coming  next  with 
cottons,  woolens,  and  general  manufactures,  then  Germany 
with  cutlery  and  various  wares,  followed  by  France  with 
silks  and  fancy  goods,  and  Spain  and  Cuba  with  wines  and 

*  La  Guaira,  the  port  of  Caracas,  is  an  open  roadstead  turned  into 
a  good  harbor  by  breakwaters ;  it  handles  a  fourth  of  the  imports  and 
most  of  the  cacao  exports.  Puerto  Cabello,  the  best  harbor,  is  the  port 
for  the  large  region  of  which  Valencia  is  the  business  center.  Mara- 
caibo  can  not  be  reached  by  the  largest  vessels,  but  has  the  advantage 
of  navigation  on  Lake  Maracaibo,  making  a  rich  region  tributary  to  it, 
so  that  it  sends  out  the  larger  part  of  the  coffee  shipments.  San  Cris- 
tobal, Valera,  and  La  Ceiba  are  shipping  points  for  coffee  and  cacao 
exported  through  Maracaibo.  The  market  for  imports  at  Maracaibo  is 
the  region  east  and  south  of  the  lake.  Tucacas  is  the  port  for  the  fruit- 
ful high  plain  of  which  Barquisimeto  is  the  thriving  trade  center.  The 
small  foreign  trade  of  Barcelona  passes  through  its  port,  Guanta.  The 
port  of  the  south  is  Ciudad  Bolivar,  on  the  Orinoco,  which,  with  its 
Meta  tributary,  is  navigable  from  the  interior  of  Colombia  to  the  ocean 
and  through  a  northern  branch  of  the  delta  to  the  channel  separating 
Trinidad  from  the  mainland.  Ciudad  Bolivar  ships  rubber  and  Barran- 
cas exports  cattle.  The  Orinoco  region  has  very  little  development. 
Nutrias  and  San  Fernando  are  collecting  points  for  cattle.  The  cacao 
industry  is  particularly  thriving  around  Maturin. 


VENEZUELA,   THE  GUIANAS,   AND  BRAZIL         347 

tobacco.  The  chief  exports  are  coffee,  cacao,  hides,  and 
gold. 

The  most  important  industries  in  the  Guianas  have  been 
the  growing  and  manufacture  of  cane  sugar  and  its  by-prod- 
ucts, rum  and  molasses.  The  lessening  value  of  cane  sugar 
caused  great  depression  in  these  colonies,  commercial  disas- 
ter following  dependence  on  this  one  crop.  The  people  of 
British  Guiana  were  turning  (1900)  many  of  the  old  sugar 
plantations  into  rice  and  tobacco  fields,  giving  also  much 
attention  to  cacao.  Sugar  has  been  largely  replaced  in  Dutch 
Guiana  by  cacao  and  coffee.  British  and  Dutch  Guiana  are 
alike  in  physical  features,  climate,  and  products.  The  low, 
marshy  coastal  plain,  fertile,  hot,  and  unhealthf ul,  is  devoted 
to  planting.  Cultivation  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  this 
narrow  strip,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  live  there.  Behind 
the  plantations  is  a  sandy  zone,  once  the  margin  of  the 
ocean  when  the  present  coastal  plain  was  under  the  sea ; 
then  beyond  the  sandy  zone  is  a  rough,  hilly  country 
covered  with  forests  and  yielding  considerable  gold.* 

Georgetown  (Demerara)  and  N^ew  Amsterdam,  the  chief 
towns  of  British  Guiana,  owe  their  importance  to  the  palmy 
days  of  the  sugar  trade.  The  Demerara  railroad  was  the 
first  in  South  America.  Bartica  is  an  outfitting  place  for 
the  gold  diggings.  Most  of  the  laborers  are  East  Indian 
coolies.  The  principal  business  interests  are  in  the  hands 
of  British  colonists.  The  imports  include  manufactures, 
coal,  flour,  dried  meat,  wine,  and  butter.  About  half  the 
imports  come  from  Great  Britain  and  more  than  a  fourth 
from  the  United  States.  Sugar,  gold,  rum,  india  rubber 
(balata),  rice,  and  molasses  are  sent  mostly  to  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  each  having  nearly  half  the  trade,  f 

*  The  gold  yield  of  British  Guiana  in  1891  was  $1,900,000,  and  in  1897 
$2,300,000.     The  gold  exports  of  Dutch  Guiana  in  1895  were  $070,000. 

f  Paramaribo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Surinam  river,  is  the  commercial 
center  of  Dutch  Guiana.  The  products  and  exports  are  indicated  in 
Fig.  135.     Nearly  tlu;  entire  trade  is  with  the  Netherlands.     French 


348  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Brazil  is  the  largest  producer  of  coffee  and  rubber  in  the 

world.  Coffee  is  the  most  important  crop  of  the  highlands, 
which  cover  half  of  the  country  betAveen  the  sea  and  the 
basin  of  the  Amazon  river.  Eubber  is  the  most  important 
product  of  the  lowlands,  which  comprise  half  of  the  country 
in  the  Amazon  plain  (Fig.  136).  The  lowlands,  lying 
under  the  equator,  deluged  by  trade-wind  rains,  covered  by 
dense  tropical  forests,  are  hot  and  unhealthful,  and  have 
few  inhabitants  (pp.  4,  6).  The  inland  part  of  the  high- 
lands is  dry  and  steppe-like  in  character  and  sparsely 
populated,  while  the  coastal  zone  is  a  region  of  planta- 
tions, fairly  well  tilled,  and  in  the  most  favored  districts 
well  populated;  here  are  all  the  most  important  cities. 
Brazil,  nearly  as  large  as  the  United  States,  is  wholly  in  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  zones,  except  the  extreme  south- 
ern states,  which  enjoy  a  temperate  climate.  The  negroes, 
now  free  but  originally  brought  from  Africa  as  slaves 
to  till  the  plantations,  are  most  numerous  in  the  tropical 
states;  the  whites,  mainly  Brazilians  (Portuguese)  and  many 
German  and  Italian  immigrants,  are  most  numerous  in 
the  uplands  of  Minas  Geraes,  the  states  of  Eio  de  Janeiro, 
Sao  Paulo,  and  the  fertile  and  temperate  states  of  the 
south. 

Coffee  is  the  great  staple  of  the  export  trade  (pp.  71,75). 
It  contributes  more  to  the  commercial  importance  of  Brazil 
than  all  the  other  agricultural  products.  Most  of  the  rail- 
roads were  built,  primarily,  to  carry  coffee  to  the  seaports. 
It  made  Eio  de  Janeiro  the  commercial  center  of  Brazil  and 
the  second  largest  city  in  South  America.  Coffee  can  be 
grown  anywhere  from  the  Amazon  to  Sao  Paulo,  but  nearly 
all  the  production  is  centered  in  the  states  of  Eio  de  Janeiro 

Guiana  is  less  developed  than  the  other  colonies,  there  being  compara- 
tively few  plantations.  It  differs  from  them  also  in  having  compara- 
tively high  coast  lands  and  in  including  phosphates  from  the  islands 
among  the  exports.  The  harbor  of  Cayenne  is  adapted  only  for  small 
vessels.     The  trade  is  chiefly  with  France. 


J 


i.  130.— Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  largest  city,  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  the  political, 
commercial,  and  industrial  center.  Santos  is  the  largest  coffce-shippins;  port. 
Porto  Alegre  is  the  port  of  the  German  colonies  in  South  Brazil.  Campos  is  one 
of  the  most  important  towns  in  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Victoria,  the  chief 
town  of  Espirito  Santo,  exports  considerable  coffee.  Bahia,  with  one  of  the  best 
harbors,  exports  coffee,  tobacco,  and  timber.  The  state  of  Sergipe  is  particularly 
rich  in  costly  woods  exported  from  Aracaju.  Sugar  is  shipped  from  Maceio. 
Pernambnco,  one  of  the  finest  harbors  of  the  land,  exports  chiefly  sugar  and 
coffee.  Natal  is  the  small  port  of  Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  Ceara  is  the  outlet  for 
the  sugar  and  cotton  of  the  fertile  state  of  that  name.  Maranhao  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  smaller  i)orts  in  the  coast  trade.  Para  ships  nearly  all  the 
rubber.  As  no  railroads  connect  these  ports,  the  coast  traffic  from  one  ])ort  to 
another  is  important,  A  great  deal  of  the  cotton  of  the  north,  for  exam|)le,  goes 
to  the  southern  factories  by  sea.  Observe  the  short  railroads  extending  from  the 
ports  to  the  plantation  districts. 

The  Amazon  affords  larger  interior  navigation  than  any  other  river  system  in 
the  world.  "Ocean  vessels  ascend  the  river  to  Iquitos  in  Peru.  Observe  the  con- 
fluence of  waterways  at  Manaos,  1,000  milc^s  up  the  Amazon,  that  have  made  it  a 
large  trading  center.  It  is  the  depot  for  all  the  rubber  collected  in  the  u))i)er  val- 
ley.    River  steamers  ply  between  Cu3'aba  in  Matto  Grosso  and  Buenos  Aires. 

349 


350  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

and  Sao  Paulo.  In  Sao  Paulo  about  1,000,000,000  plants  are 
in  cultivation,  this  state  contributing  the  larger  supply 
(Fig.  136),  Most  of  the  crop  is  shipped  from  Eio  de  Janeiro 
and  Santos,  the  port  of  Sao  Paulo.* 

Cotton,  raised  mainly  in  the  northeastern  states  (Fig.  52 
and  p.  95),  is  not  so  important  in  foreign  trade  as  formerly, 
but  is  still  a  considerable  export  to  Europe.  Most  of  the 
crop  is  consumed  in  the  home  factories.  Sugar,  formerly 
very  important  for  1,800  miles  along  the  east  coast,  has 
declined  on  account  of  low  prices.  It  supplies  the  home 
demand,  and  much  is  exported  through  Pernambuco.  The 
tobacco  of  Bahia  and  Minas  Geraes  supplies  all  the  leaf 
needed  for  cigars  and  cigarettes  and  a  large  surplus  for  ex- 
port. Many  thousands  of  cattle  raised  most  extensively  on 
the  campos  of  the  south  are  slaughtered  every  year ;  the 
meat  is  dried  in  the  sun,  some  of  it  being  exported  to  Cuba, 
but  far  larger  quantities  and  many  beef  cattle  are  imported 
from  Argentina  and  Uruguay ;  hides,  hair,  horns,  and  bones 
(in  the  form  of  bone  ash,  used  as  a  fertilizer)  are  sent  to 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  As  dairying  is  neglected, 
foreign  butter  has  a  good  market.  Swine  are  fattened  in 
large  numbers  in  the  south,  but  much  lard  and  pork  is  sent 
from  the  United  States,  f 

*  Brazilian  coffee  is  particularly  rich  in  caffeine.  In  the  cooler 
climate,  where  it  is  grown,  the  shrub  does  not  need  the  protection  of 
shade  trees  as  in  Venezuela.  Some  of  the  coffee  estates  embrace  as 
much  as  50,000  acres,  giving  employment  to  thousands  of  laborers;  they 
are  equipped  with  the  best  machinery,  and  branch  railroads  run  to  the 
doors  of  the  factories  that  prepare  the  crop  for  market.  The  berries 
are  picked  from  May  till  September,  graded  in  seven  qualities.and  shipped 
in  sacks,  each  containing  132  pounds.  In  good  years  the  crop  amounts 
to  over  11,000,000  sacks.  The  industry  has  suffered  in  late  years  from 
reduced  prices,  due  to  overproduction.  About  nine  tenths  of  the  crop 
is  exported  to  the  United  States,  Europe,  South  Africa,  and  the  Plata 
river  countries. 

f  Animal  products  to  the  value  of  several  million  dollars  are  an- 
nually exported, 


VENEZUELA,   THE   GUIANAS,   AND   BRAZIL         35I 

Rubber  is  second  only  to  coffee  in  the  exports  (p.  113). 
Several  qualities  are  derived  from  various  rubber  trees 
growing  throughout  the  Amazon  basin.  The  trees  are 
tapped  and  the  coagulated  sap  (crude  rubber)  is  taken  to 
collecting  points,  and  from  time  to  time  carried  by  boats 
to  Manaos,  Para,  and  other  markets.  The  quality  known 
as  Para  rubber  brings  a  higher  price  than  any  other ;  the 
price  of  the  crude  rubber  is  fixed  in  foreign  markets,  chiefly 
in  New  York  and  London,  the  quotations  being  cabled  to 
Para,  which  is  the  shipping  point  for  nearly  all  the  rubber,* 
for  the  guidance  of  purchasing  agents  there. 

Among  other  forest  products  are  Brazil  nuts,  the  largest 
supplies  coming  from  the  Eio  Negro. f 

Mineral  products  are  very  small,  though  gold  and  dia- 
mond mining  are  carried  on  to  some  extent,  chiefly  in 
Minas  Geraes.  The  diamond  industry  was  nearly  ruined 
by  the  discovery  of  the  South  African  diggings  (p.  133); 
the  gems  are  of  the  finest  quality,  and  the  output  (about 
$350,000  a  year)  is  cut  at  Diamantina  and  the  neighboring 
villages. 

Manioc,  black  beans,  and  rice  are  the  chief  articles  of  food.  J 
Yams,  maize,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas,  and  arrowroot  are 
also  important  food  resources  ;  very  little  food  is  imported 

*  As  the  supply  of  wild  rubber  bids  fair  to  become  exhausted  in 
time,  increased  attention  is  being  given  to  the  cultivation  of  caout- 
chouc. Rubber  grown  on  plantations  is  likely  to  be  the  chief  source 
of  supply.  Over  20,000  tons  of  crude  rubber  are  exported  from  Para 
every  year. 

f  Brazil  derives  its  name  from  the  Brazil  tree,  which  yields  a  dye- 
ing material.  The  Brazil  nut  derives  its  name  from  that  of  the  coun- 
try. 

\  The  standard  dish  on  Brazilian  tables  is  a  mixture  of  manioc 
flour,  black  beans,  and  rice,  with  bacon  or  jerked  beef  imported  from 
-La  Plata  countries.  The  root  of  the  manioc  plant  is  widely  cultivated 
in  tropical  America  and  Africa,  where  it  is  the  chief  food  of  millions 
of  people.  Tapioca,  a  large  export  to  northern  countries,  is  prcjiared 
from  manioc  starch. 


352  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

for  the  poorer  classes,  but  a  great  deal  for  the  more  pros- 
perous part  of  the  whites.  Eice  thrives  on  the  lowlands, 
but  large  quantities  are  imported.  The  cereals  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  little  cultivated,  though  wheat  thrives  in  the 
south.  Most  of  the  wheat  and  flour  consumed  is  imported. 
Though  agriculture  has  been  considerably  extended  in  recent 
years,  Brazil  still  has  less  land  in  tillage,  in  proportion  to  area, 
than  almost  any  other  country.  The  methods  of  cultivation 
are  very  primitive  except  on  the  large  plantations,  but  the 
neglected  fields  yield  abundant  food  for  the  peasantry. 

Manufactures  have  only  meager  development.  Nothing 
else  could  be  expected  in  a  land  where  coal  and  iron  are  in 
small  supply.  Still  some  iron  is  smelted.  Over  100  cotton 
factories  work  up  most  of  the  Brazil  cotton ;  in  all  well- 
settled  regions  there  are  sawmills,  brick  yards,  tanneries, 
and  other  establishments,  which  supply  most  of  the  primary 
necessities,  such  as  furniture,  coarse  cottons  and  woolens, 
hats,  leather,  matches,  candles,  and  some  machinery.* 

The  imports  are  mainly  foodstuffs,  coal,  machinery,  and 
articles  desired  by  the  vsrell-to-do  classes.  The  exports  are 
confined  mainly  to  a  few  products  of  the  plantations  and  the 
forests.  Among  the  food  products  most  largely  imported 
are  flour,  cattle,  jerked  beef,  rice,  codfish,  lard,  butter,  wines, 
and  spirits.  Cottons,  woolens,  iron,  machinery,  and  coal 
are  large  purchases,  most  of  them  coming  from  England. 
Most  of  the  hog  products,  half  of  the  flour,  and  all  the 
kerosene  come  from  the  United  States.  Coffee,  rubber, 
tobacco,  hides,  and  cacao  are  the  leading  exports.  Fifteen, 
steamship  lines  connect  Brazil  with  Europe  and  North 
America.  Over  thirty  foreign  mail-carrying  steamers  visit 
the  various  ports  every  month. 

*  Very  high  duties,  amounting  in  some  instances  to  more  than  the 
vahie  of  the  goods,  are  imposed.  If  it  were  not  for  this  protection,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  carry  on  the  textile  industries.  Agricultural 
machinery  and  implements  are  lightly  taxed,  but  the  imports  are  small. 


VENEZUELA,  THE   GUIANAS,   AND   BRAZIL         353 

STATISTICS   FOR  VENEZUELA,  THE  GUIANAS, 

AND  BRAZIL* 

Venezuela 

Imjiorts  to    Venezuela  from  Leading  Countries  {in  3Iillion  Dollars) 

1898.    1899.  I  1898.    1899. 

United  States 2.7    2.6 

Great  Britain 2.2    2.4 

France 0.4    0.6 


Germany 1.0    0.9 

Spain 0.3 


Exports  from  Venezuela  to  Leading  Countries  {in  Jlillion  Dollars) 

1898.     1899. 

Germany 2.4     2.2 

Spain 0.3 


1898.  1899. 

United  States 6.6  5.6 

Great  Britain 0.2  0.2 

France 7.1  7.6 

The  total  exports  are  over  $20,000,000  a  year. 
Population  (1891),  2,323,527. 

The  monetary  standard  is  gold  and  silver,  Avith  the  boli- 
var (19^  cents,  gold)  as  the  unit  of  coinage. 

The  Guianas 
Average  Annual  Trade  of  British  Guiana  {in  3Iillion  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891-'95.  1899. 

Imports 9.5  8.5  6.3 

Exports 13.0  11.0  9.2 

Population  (1898),  280,870. 

Annual  Trade  of  Dutch  Guiana  {in  Jlillion  Dollars) 

1895.  1899. 

Imports 2.3  2.4 

E.xports 2  1  2.2 

Population  (1897),  79,800. 

Annwd   Trade  of  Frendi  Guiana  {in  3Iillion  Dollars) 

1805.  1809. 

Imports 2.:}  Trade  with  j  2.0 

Exports     1.9  France.    (0.06 

Population  (1895),  22,714. 

*  Commercial  statistics  of  Venezuela  and  Brazil  are  incomplete,  and 
partly  estimated. 
23 


354  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Brazil 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  3Iillion  Dollars) 

1881-"85.                         1891-'95.  1899. 

Imports 106.7                        150.0  105.3 

Exports 116.0                       177.5  124.7 

Trade  tvith  Leading  Countries,  1899  {in  Million  Dollars) 

Imports  Exports 

from  Brazil,  to  Brazil. 

France 26.4  20.3 

Spain 0.4  0.4 

Belgium 2.1  10.0 


Imports  Exports 

from  Brazil,  to  Brazil. 

United  States.  ..  .  59.5  11.4 

Great  Britain 19.2  26.4 

Germany 23.6  11.3 


Population  (1890),  14,332,530. 

Gold  is  the  monetary  standard,  with  the  milreis  (541 
cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage ;  but  the  actual  circulating 
medium  is  mostly  inconvertible  paper,  together  with  nickel 
and  bronze  coins.     Metric  weights  and  measures. 


V 


CHAPTER  XXXIY 

PARAGUAY,   URUGUAY,    ARGENTINA,   AND    CHILE 

Paraguay  has  rich  but  undeveloped  resources  (Fig.  137). 
It  is  a  plain  surmouuted  by  low  mountain  ranges,  mostly 
covered  with  great  forests,  with  wide,  open  spaces  interven- 
ing that  provide  fine  pastures  and  fertile  farming  lands. 
The  climate  is  healthful  and,  tliough  warm,  is  not  oppres- 
sive. The  disadvantages  are  sparsity  of  population,  very 
poor  interior  communications,  and  lack  of  capital.* 

Though  an  interior  country,  Paraguay  has  as  yet  no  rail 
connections  with  the  sea.  The  Paraguay  and  Parana  rivers, 
however,  provide  sea  communications,  all  the  interior  com- 
merce being  carried  on  these  rivers  ;  above  their  junction 
the  Parana  is  navigable  only  for  250  miles  to  Encarnacion. 
Large  steamboats  ply  between  Asuncion,  the  capital,  and 
Montevideo  and  Buenos  Aires,  but  their  high  freight  rates 
are  a  commercial  disadvantage. 

Yerba  mat6  is  the  most  important  export  (Fig.  46).  As 
it  is  cheaper  than  tea,  its  use  as  a  beverage  is  constantly 
growing.  The  exports  in  1896  were  5,000  tons,  and  in  1898 
over  7,000  tons.f 

*  To  encourage  immigration  the  Government  pays  the  passage  of 
immigrants  from  Buenos  Aires,  gives  them  land,  and  loans  them  im- 
plements and  money  without  interest.  The  immigration,  however,  is 
very  small. 

+  Yerha  mate  (the  mate  herb,  also  railed  Paiaguay  tea)  is  a  shrub 
growing  wild  in  the  forests  and  in  neighboring~districts  of  Brazil ;  it  is 
also  cultivated  on  a  few  plantations,  whose  ))rodiict  is  said  to  be  supe- 
rior. The  leaves,  rich  in  caffeine,  are  withered,  rolled,  and  sorted,  about 
half  the  crop  being  consumed  at  home  and  the  remairuler  sent  in  bags 

355 


356  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Hides  are  the  second  largest  export.  They  are  practically 
the  only  animal  j)roduct  sent  out  of  the  country  except  live 
cattle,  shipped  to  the  jerked-beef  establishments  of  the 
south,  and  a  little  sole  leather. 

Few  small  countries  are  as  rich  as  Paraguay  in  valuable 
woods.  But  with  a  market  at  their  doors,  the  Paraguayans 
are  unable  to  meet  more  than  a  part  of  the  demand  from 
Argentina  and  Uruguay  for  railroad  ties,  building  timber, 
and  cabinet  woods.  It  is  so  difficult  to  deliver  timber  at 
the  rivers  for  shipment  that  Argentina  finds  it  cheaper  to 
buy  most  of  its  woods  in  Xorth  America  and  Europe.* 

Few  agricultural  products  are  exported.  Oranges  and 
pineapples  are  the  most  important  exports  of  the  orchards 
and  tilled  lands,  which  are  mostly  along  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  for  convenience  of  transport.  Oranges  are  so  plenti- 
ful that  hogs  are  fattened  on  them.  Manioc  and  maize  are 
the  food  staples  ;  sugar  cane,  ramie  fiber  (p.  103),  and  coffee 
are  grown  for  home  consumption.  All* the  soap  is  made 
from  cacao  oil.  Cotton  thrives,  but  little  is  grown,  cotton 
textiles  from  England  and  Germany  being  the  largest  im- 
port. Much  tobacco  is  sent  to  Argentina,  where  it  is  mixed 
with  Cuban  and  other  leaf  and  made  into  cigars  and  cigar- 
ettes. All  the  wheat  comes  from  Argentina ;  the  poor,  how- 
ever, can  not  afford  to  eat  it. 

to  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  other  South  American  countries,  where  it 
is  sold  chiefly  to  the  country  people,  who  regard  it  as  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  tea  and  coffee.  As  the  decoction  is  sweeter  than  tea,  it  is 
drunk  with  little  or  no  sugar ;  it  is  stimulating  and  to  some  extent  a 
substitute  for  food. 

*  In  1896  the  Great  Southern  R.  R.  of  Argentina  purchased  &  large 
quantity  of  ties  in  Australia,  because  Paraguay  had  no  facilities  for 
turning  out  the  supply  required  in  the  stipulated  time.  In  many  ways 
Paraguay  suffers  from  lack  of  good  roads.  Oranges,  after  jolting  for 
days  in  bullock  carts,  are  hardly  worth  exporting  when  they  reach  the 
shipping  points.  When  the  small  rivers  are  very  low  a  considerable 
part  of  the  mate  crop  can  not  be  delivered  at  the  Paraguay  and  Parana 
rivers  for  shipment. 


CHILE,  A K(J  i:\TINA, 

PARA(;i  AV  AXD 

URUGUAY 

SCALE    1  ;  23,000,000 


Flo.  137. 


357 


358  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

There  are  few  manufactures.  Spirits  are  distilled  from 
sugar-cane  juice;  and  brick,  earthenware,  leather  tanning, 
furniture  and  cigar  making  are  industries  in  Asuncion  and 
a  few  towns. 

About  half  the  imports  come  from  England.  As  all  the 
peojjle  dress  in  cotton  fabrics,  these  textiles  are  the  prin- 
cipal foreign  purchases,  followed  by  wine  and  rice.  Yerba 
mate,  hides,  timber,  tobacco,  and  oranges,  in  this  order,  are 
the  important  exports.* 

TTruguay's  wealth  depends  upon  its  pastoral  industries  and 
agriculture.  Its  surface  is  an  undulating,  grassy  plain,  in- 
tersected by  low  mountain  ranges.  The  climate  is  temper- 
ate and  healthful,  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  rainfall  abun- 
dant. Bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea  and  the  naviga- 
ble La  Plata  and  Uruguay  rivers,  it  has  a  very  favorable 
position  for  trade.  Its  disadvantages  are  civil  wars,  which 
have  greatly  retarded  development,  and  a  sparse  popula- 
tion, with  the  resulting  inadequacy  of  labor.  Most  of  the 
land  is  held  in  lai'ge  estates. 

Grazing  is  the  largest  industry  (Fig.  137). f  The  cattle, 
resembling  our  Texan  cattle,  but  smaller,  have  been  much 
improved  since  1885  by  the  introduction  of  Durham,  Hol- 
stein,  and  other  breeds.  The  rich  district  around  Paysandu 
produces  the  best  beef  cattle,  this  town  and  Montevideo 
being  great  slaughtering  centers.  About  800,000  cattle  are 
killed  annually  with  little  wastQ,  horns  and  bone  ash  being 

*  The  foreign  trade  is  incliuled  in  the  statistics  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
countries  (Argentina  and  Urnguay).  Thus,  while  we  send  hardware, 
kerosene,  and  canvas  to  Paraguay,  and  buy  hides  and  essences,  our 
treasury  returns  show  little  or  no  trade.  Approximate  statistics  of  the 
total  foreign  commerce  are  obtained  from  the  returns  of  the  Paraguay 
custom  houses. 

f  Jlulhall  (1894)  estimates  the  annual  value  of  the  animal  products 
at  $37,500,000  ;  farm  products,  !?12.500.000.  There  are  7,000  cattle  and 
19,450  sheep  for  every  1,000  of  the  puiiulation,  a  larger  proportion  than 
in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 


PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    359 

exported  and  refuse  turned  into  fertilizers.  Four  fifths  of 
the  cattle  are  used  in  making  "  tasajo,"  jerked  beef,*  which 
is  exported  to  Brazil,  west  South  America,  Cuba,  and  Porto 
Eico.  About  150,000  cattle  are  slaughtered  every  year  at 
Fray  Bentos  for  the  manufacture  of  meat  extracts.  Corned 
beef  and  salted  and  canned  beef  tongues  are  sent  to  Eu- 
rope ;  exjiorts  of  refrigerated  beef  and  mutton  are  becom- 
ing important. 

The  export  of  wool,  which  has  more  than  doubled  since 
1880,  is  the  largest  item  in  the  sales  to  foreign  lands.  It 
is  sent  to  the  cotton-spinning  countries  of  Europe  and  to 
the  United  States. 

Wheat  and  wheat  flour  comprise  most  of  the  agricultural 
exports.  Wheat  is  sent  to  Europe  and  flour  to  Brazil,  which 
buys  more  flour  from  Argentina  and  Uruguay  than  from 
any  other  countries.  Most  of  the  cereals  and  other  farm 
products,  however,  are  consumed  at  home,  but  the  tend- 
ency is  to  plow  more  land  in  order  to  increase  the  produc- 
tion. Except  in  years  when  the  locust  plague  is  severe, 
Uruguay  is  a  wheat-exporting  country.  Flax,  raised  for 
linseed,  is  an  important  exjiort  crop.  The  vine  is  grown 
successfully  in  the  northwestern  jiart  of  the  rei^ublic. 

Navigation  on  the  Uruguay  is  interrupted  by  cataracts 
at  Salto,  but  much  of  the  trade  centering  at  Montevideo  is 
carried  on  Uruguay  river  steamers.  The  chief  towns  of 
the  interior  are  also  joined  by  rail  with  Montevideo  (move- 
ment 6,000,000  tons),  which  is  connected  with  the  United 
States  and  the  chief  countries  of  Europe  by  steamship 
lines.f 

*  The  flesh  is  cut  into  pieces,  salted,  and  pressed  under  stones  to 
extract  the  juices,  then  hung  on  wooden  railings  under  the  hot  sun  till 
it  becomes  thoroughly  dried.  Different  markets  require  different  rjuali- 
ties  ;  thus  the  fatter  jerked  beef  is  sent  to  Brazil  and  the  leaner  to  the 
West  Indies.  Jerked  beef  is  the  only  cheap  form  of  beef  that  may  be 
kept  for  a  long  time  in  tropical  markets  without  deterioration. 

f  Though  Montevideo  is  the  second  largest  port  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 


360  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Most  of  the  imports  are  food,  hardware,  machinery,  and 
textiles;  seven  eighths  of  the  exports  are  animal  products. 
Though  leather  and  other  industries  are  increasing,  most  ^f 
the  manufactures  are  imported.  As  agriculture  lags  far 
behind  the  animal  industries,  the  home  markets  are  sup- 
plied with  large  quantities  of  foreign  foodstuffs ;  but  the 
sales  of  animal  products  are  so  large  that  the  total  exports 
usually  exceed  the  imports.  The  mineral  resources  of  the 
north  are  little  utilized ;  coal  from  Cardiff  is  one  of  the 
large  imports.     Duties  on  imports  are  very  high. 

The  pampas  of  Argentina  are  its  greatest  source  of  wealth. 
These  low,  grassy,  nearly  level,  treeless  plains  extend  from 
the  Eio  de  la  Plata  north  to  the  luxuriant  forests  of  Gran 
Chaco,  west  to  the  foothills  of  the  Cordilleras  at  San  Juan 
and  Mendoza,  and  south  through  Patagonia ;  their  mo- 
notony is  here  and  there  relieved  by  low  mountains  or 
groups  of  hills,  but  in  most  parts  the  pampas  stretch  away 
apparently  as  level  as  the  sea.  The  rivers  of  the  north,  the 
Paraguay,  Parana,  Uruguay,  and  Pilcomayo,  which  reach 
the  sea  through  the  La  Plata,  and  the  smaller  rivers  of  the 
south,  have  for  ages  been  bringing  earth  from  the  moun- 
tains to  build  up  these  plains.  The  part  of  the  pampas  near- 
est to  the  Uruguay  and  Parana  rivers  between  Buenos 
Aires  and  the  30th  parallel,  and  extending  to  the  vicinity  of 
Mercedes  and  Cordoba  in  the  west,  is  the  great  zone  of  agri- 
culture, where  pastures  have  been  largely  turned  into  farm- 
lands and  great  crops  of  wheat,  flax,  and  maize  are  raised. 
Although  the  plow  is  still  encroaching  upon  the  grass 
lands,  they  continue  to  make  the  largest  contribution  to  the 
wealth  of  the  country,  about  25,000,000  cattle  and  75,000- 
000  sheep  feeding  on  the  rich  natural  grasses. 

countries,  the  harbor  is  shallow,  and  freight  is  carried  between  the 
shore  and  the  shipping  on  lighters.  Maldonado  is  a  small  port.  San 
Jose  is  the  largest  interior  town,  all  the  country  settlements  being  cen- 
ters of  the  cattle  and  sheep  trade. 


PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    361 

The  northern  part  of  the  republic  is  hot,  the  southern 
part  is  frigid,  but  the  central  portion  where  flocks,  herds, 
and  farms  abound,  has  a  temperate  climate.  The  rainfall 
is  small,  but  usually  sufficient  in  the  growing  season. 

Animal  industries  are  most  important.  Argentina  is  one 
of  the  largest  sources  of  export  wool,  the  clip  amounting 
to  over  450,000,000  pounds  a  year  (Fig.  54).  Buenos  Aires  is 
in  the  great  wool  market.  When  shearing  time  comes  there 
are  scarcely  cars  enough  to  move  the  wool  crop  to  that 
port.  The  wool  is  sent  to  Europe  unwashed,  the  owners 
asserting  that  it  crosses  the  ocean  better  in  that  condition. 
They  prefer  to  sell  it  at  a  lower  rate  and  allow  European 
buyers  to  scour  it.*  Two  thirds  of  the  crop  goes  to  Erance, 
Belgium,  and  Germany.  Both  wool  and  mutton  are  being 
improved  by  the  introduction  of  superior  European  breeds. 
Four  fifths  of  the  sheep  graze  on  the  pampas  of  Buenos 
Aires  province. 

Argentina  is  a  great  center  of  the  frozen -meat  trade. 
Sheep  and  cattle  were  formerly  raised  almost  entirely  for 
wool,  hides,  and  tallow.  The  meat  was  thrown  away.f  It 
was  not  till  1882  that  great  factories  were  built  for  freez- 
ing mutton  and  beef  so  that  it  might  be  carried  across  the 
tropics  to  the  European  markets.  Frozen  mutton  is  by  far 
the  largest  branch  of  the  meat  industry.  About  200,000 
dressed  sheep  are  exported  every  month  in  refrigerated 
chambers.  |  The  largest  frozen-meat  plant  in  the  world  is 
at  Buenos  Aires. 

Frozen  beef  is  a  much  smaller  branch  of  the  industry. 
Jerked  beef  is  produced  on  a  large  scale  in  the  factories, 

*  In  Australia,  on  the  other  hand,  wool  is  scoured  in  large  estab- 
lishments at  Sydney  and  other  places  of  shipment. 

+  A  large  amount  of  meat  is  still  thrown  away,  the  republic  produc- 
ing about  750,000  tons  of  meat  a  year  more  than  it  can  consume. 

X  Sheep  cost  about  iii;2  apiece,  weigh  dressed  from  thirt  y  pounds  (lamb) 
to  seventy  pounds  (mutton),  and  cost  1  to  2  cents  a  pound  freightage  to 
London,  where  the  retail  price  is  ten  or  more  cents  a  pound. 


362  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

most  of  which  are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  La  Plata 
and  the  Paraguay,  Parana,  and  Uruguay  rivers.  Vessels 
load  with  jerked  beef  at  the  wharves  of  the  factories  and 
take  it  direct  to  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  local  distribl^ting  points. 

Live-stock  exports  are  increasing.  Exports  of  live  cattle 
were  a  failure  till  the  native  breeds  had_J)een  much  im- 
proved by  foreign  admixture.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  trans- 
ferred from  large  yards  at  Buenos  Aires  to  steamships, 
where  they  are  placed  in  open  pens  on  deck,  the  weather 
being  too  hot  across  the  tropics  to  confine  them  in  closed 
pens.  About  150,000  cattle  and  500,000  sheep  are  sent  alive 
to  Europe  every  year.  Increased  facilities  for  live  ship- 
ments (1901)  are  expected  to  augment  this  business. 
Dairying  has  been  introduced  since  1895. 

Wheat  is  the  staple  of  agriculture.  It  is  grown  on  the 
pampas  mainly  north  of  Buenos  Aires  and  east  of  Cordoba, 
where  there  are  many  comparatively  small  farms  tilled  to  a 
large  extent  by  Italian  and  German  colonists.  In  1880  wheat 
and  fiour  were  still  imported,  but  wheat  culture  has  since 
made  large  strides,  over  5,000,000  acres  being  devoted  to  it. 
Locusts,  droughts,  and  floods  are  likely  to  diminish  the 
crop,  but  as  several  times  the  area  now  in  wheat  is  adapted 
for  it,  the  republic  is  destined  to  be  one  of  the  greatest 
exporting  countries.  The  average  distance  of  wheat  haul- 
age to  the  river  ports  is  not  over  150  miles  (p.  61).  Freight 
rates  to  Europe  are,  however,  higher  than  from  this  country 
to  Europe.*    Argentine  wheat  is  as  yet  inferior  in  grading 

*  Wheat,  wool,  and  cattle  freight  rates  to  Europe  are  affected  by 
the  quantities  of  coal  imported  into  Argentina.  As  the  country  ex- 
ports bulky  and  heavy  articles  and  imports  mainly  manufactures,  it  is 
difficult  for  ships  from  Europe  to  get  full  cargoes  for  Argentina  unless 
the  demand  for  coal  there  provides  abundant  freight.  When  the 
demand  for  coal  is  large,  freight  rates  for  Rio  Plata  products  fall ; 
when  it  is  small,  rates  for  Argentine  exports  advance.  Our  wool  tariff 
has  cut  off  the  former  large  imports  of  Argentine  wool  into  this  coun- 
try, while  at  the  same  time  we  are  selling  larger  quantities  of  manu- 


PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    363 

and  cleanliness  to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  therefore 
brings  a  smaller  price. 

Linseed  is  the  next  largest  agricultural  export,  going  to 
England,  Belgium,  and  France,  flax  being  grown  almost 
entirely  for  the  seed.  Linseed  oil  is  produced  by  Argentine 
mills.  Maize  is  a  large  export  to  Europe,  though  much  is 
eaten  at  home  or  consumed  by  the  local  distilleries.  French 
settlers  in  San  Juan  and  Mendoza  provinces  produce  wine 
among  the  foothills  of  the  Cordilleras,  all  the  product  being 
sold  in  the  country.  Special  trains  are  run  daily  in  the 
season  to  carrry  fresh  fruit  from  Mendoza  to  the  Buenos 
Aires  market. 

The  timber  resources  of  the  Gran  Chaco  are  very  large, 
but  are  little  utilized,  for  they  are  far  from  the  transporta- 
tion routes  thus  far  developed.  More  Paraguayan  or  other 
imported  woods  are  used,  but  considerable  of  the  home 
timber,  suitable  for  cabinet  work,  reaches  Buenos  Aires, 
where  manufactures  of  furniture  and  carriages  are  large 
industries.  Some  woods.,are  sent  to  Europe,  but  Argentine 
timber  is  so  far  from  tidewater  that  the  cost  of  freightage 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  hardwoods  of  Central 
America  and  parts  of  Brazil. 

Gold,  silver,  and  cepper  are  exported  to  Germany,  Eng- 
land, France,  Belgium,  and  Italy ;  but,  although  there  are 
rich  mineral  resources  along"  the  Cordilleras,  they  have 
been  little  developed.  Argentina  has  no  coal,  unless  the 
discoveries  on  the  Bermejo  and  in  Patagonia  are  im- 
portant, which  is  still  doubtful.  Large  importations  are 
necessary  for  railroad  and  manufacturing  purposes. 

Manufactures  are  not  greatly  developed.  They  pertain 
most  of  all   to  the  preparation  of   meat,  hides,  and  agri- 

factures  to  that  country.  Vessels  loaded  here  with  merchandise  find  it 
difficult  to  get  return  cargoes,  as  we  do  not  want  cattle,  sheep,  wheat,  or 
maize,  and  buy  less  wool  than  formerly ;  they,  therefore,  put  into 
Brazil  ports  for  coffee,  rubber,  and  other  articles  to  complete  tiieir 
return  cargoes. 


364  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

cultural  products,  such  as  flour  and  sugar.  Since  1890, 
however,  numerous  textile  mills,  aided  by  a  high  protective 
tariff,  have  been  opened,  and  now  supply  nearly  all  the 
common  woolens  and  cottons.  More  than  30,000,000  home- 
made sacks  are  sold  to  the  farmers  every  year  for  sacking 
their  grain.  Leather  goods  made  of  hides  cured  in  the 
country  are  a  large  product.  Structural  iron  is  made,  but 
most  machinery  is  imported.  Hats,  paper,  and  beer  are 
also  large  manufactures.  Buenos  Aires  is  the  greatest 
manufacturing  and  commercial  center.* 

Textile  manufactures  are  the  largest  imports.  They  are 
chiefly  the  better  grades  of  cotton  goods,  followed  by  wool 

*  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital  of  Argentina  and  largest  city  of  South 
America,  controls  two  thirds  of  the  foreign  trade,  and  has  magnificent 
stone  docks,  the  approach  to  which  is  poor,  owing  to  the  continual  deposi- 
tion of  silt  in  the  river  bed  fronting  them.  La  Plata  has  a  better  harbor, 
and  therefore  attracts  considerable  shipping.  Rosario,  the  second  largest 
city,  is  a  river  seaport,  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  16" feet ;  it  ships  a 
great  deal  of  wheat,  meats,  and  hides  direct  to  foreign  countries. 
Parana  is  a  center  of  Italian  farming  communities.  The  prosperity  of 
Santa  Fe,  connected  by  rail  with  the  Parana,  is  also  due  to  the  flourish- 
ing agriculture  around  it  by  foreign  settlers.  The.  building  and  repair- 
ing docks  for  steamers  on  the  Paraguay  and  Pai'ana  are  at  Corrientes. 
Jujuy  and  Salta,  at  the  northern  termini  of  the  railroads,  do  a  large 
transit  trade  with  Bolivia  and  Chile  by  mule  and  llama  trains.  Tucu- 
man,  in  the  midst  of  a  lai"ge,  fertile  plain,  manufactures  a  great  deal  of 
sugar  and  rum,  and  employs  several  thousand  Europeans  in  its  mills. 
Catamarca  and  Rioja  export  oranges  and  other  fruits.  San  Juan  is 
a  center  of  trade  for  the  mining  districts.  Mendoza  is  the  chief  station 
on  the  overland  route  between  Bufenos  Aires  and  Chile,  and  sends  all  its 
wine  and  fruit  to  Buenos  Aires.  San  Luis  is  a  center  of  vineyards  and 
orchards  nourished  by  irrigation.  Cordoba  is  the  center  of  a  rich 
farming  region  made  productive  by  irrigation.  Mercedes  is  surrounded 
by  rich  lucerne  meadows  (alfalfa),  a  forage  plant  which  is  an  important 
export  to  Brazil.  Bahia  Blanca  has  a  good  harbor,  is  an  outlet  for 
sheep  and  cattle  products,  and  has  direct  steamship  connections  with 
Europe;  the  surrounding  vineyards  produce  the  excellent  Chocoli 
wine.  Rawson  is  the  town  of  the  agricultural  Scotch  colony  on  the 
Chubut  river. 


PARAGUAY,  UEUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    3G5 

and  silk  fabrics.  Next  come  raw  iron  for  the  foundries  and 
machine  shops  and  a  large  variety  of  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures. Crockery,  foodstuffs,  beverages,  and  lumber  are 
also  very  large  imports.  Most  of  the  hardware  and  ma- 
chinery comes  from  the  United  States. 

Wool,  meats,  live  stock,  and  hides  are  half  the  total  exports. 
Wheat,  maize,  and  timber  comprise  most  of  the  remaining 
sales  abroad.  The  leading  exports  to  the  United  States  are 
wool,  hides,  and  skins. 

Railroads  extend  in  all  directions  from  Buenos  Aires  and 
have  been  most  important  in  developing  the  country.  The 
flat  pampas  are  very  favorable  for  railroad  building.  The 
map  indicates  the  unfinished  part  of  the  railroad  across  the 
continent  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Valparaiso.  This  line  and 
that  to  Jujuy  are  the  longest  and  most  important  railroads. 
Buenos  Aires  is  connected  by  steamships  with  many  imj)or- 
tant  ports  of  Europe  and  America. 

Business  pursuits  in  Chile  are  sharply  differentiated  by  vari- 
eties of  climate.  The  southeast  trade  winds  blowing  off  the 
west  and  leeward  coast  of  South  America  (Fig.  8)  leave  the 
narrow  coast  strip  practically  rainless  from  southern  Ecua- 
dor to  middle  Chile  (Fig.  3).  Xorth  Chile  thus  has  little 
rain,  and  agriculture  is  possible  only  where  streams  from 
the  mountains  permit  irrigation.  The  great  resource  of  the 
north  being  minerals,  mining  is  almost  the  sole  industry. 
Between  Santiago  and  Yaldivia  the  winds  often  blow  from 
the  sea,  bringing  sufficient  rain  for  tillage,  though  irrigation 
is  necessary  in  many  places.  The  middle  zone  is  thus  a 
region  of  cattle,  wheat,  and  fruit.  Enormous  quantities  of 
food  are  sent  from  this  favored  region  to  the  barren  north, 
where  thousands  of  men  are  working  in  the  nitrate  fields 
and  mining  camps  ;  thus  climate  has  a  great  influence  upon 
trade  movement  from  one  part  of  Chile  to  another.  South 
of  Valdivia  the  westerly  winds  or  "  Eoaring  Forties"  (Fig. 
8)  bring  excessive  rainfall,  favorable  to  forest  growth,  and 
here  lumbering  and  fishing  are  the  main  occupations. 


366  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  the  largest  resource.*  It  is  obtained 
along  the  north  coast  of  Chile,  some  distance  inland.  As 
found,  it  has  the  appearance  of  rock  salt ;  it  is  crushed  and 
treated  at  the  mines  to  exclude  foreign  substances,  and  car- 
ried from  the  diggings  on  short  railroads  to  the  nitrate 
ports.  It  is  widely  spread  on  the  fields  of  Germany  and 
France,  is  used  to  a  lesser  extent  in  Great  Britain  and  Bel- 
gium, and  about  one  tenth  of  the  output  is  sold  in  this  coun- 
try. Kitrate,  exported  from  Chile  for  seventy  years,  is  now 
in  larger  demand  than  ever,  and  comprises  three  fifths  of 
the  total  exports,  over  1,000,000  tons  a  year  being  sold.  If 
north  Chile  had  abundant  rainfall  this  valuable  resource 
would  probably  have  been  dissipated  and  agriculture  would 
have  taken  its  place. 

Copper  (Fig.  67)  is  the  largest  metal  export,  followed 
by  silver  and  gold.  A  great  deal  of  copper  ore  is  smelted 
in  the  country.  The  mining  industries  are  mainly  in  the 
north,  except  coal,  of  which  there  is  a  large  field  along  the 
southern  coast,  the  Arauco  railroad  supplying  transporta- 
tion. It  is  of  rather  inferior  quality,  and  though  exj)orted 
to  other  Pacific  coast  states,  a  much  larger  quantity  is 
imported. 

Wheal  is  the  leading  agricultural  product.  In  early  years 
Chile  supplied  California  and  Australia  with  wheat,  and  it 
still  has  a  considerable  quantity  to  sell  to  Peru  and  Ecua- 
dor. All  the  cereals  of  the  temperate  zone  are  raised  on 
the  rich  central  plain,  besides  tobacco,  apples  and  other 
fruits,  and  walnuts.  Wine  is  an  important  product  of  the 
south,  particularly  in  the  district  around  Concepcion,  some 
being  exported.  Two  native  woods  and  Oregon  pine  sup- 
ply the  demand  for  lumber. 

Manufactures  have  considerable  development.     Industries 

*  Cubic  niter  or  Chile  saltpeter  is  known  in  commerce  simply  as 
nitrate.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  but  is  far  more 
extensively  utilized  as  a  fertilizer,  being  exported  to  Europe  iu  enor- 
mous quantities  to  be  sold  to  the  farmers. 


PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    367 

are  most  important  in  the  Department  of  Valparaiso, 
where  there  were,  in  1899,  457  factories  and  mills  employ- 
ing 15,000  hands.  They  include  gas  works,  sugar  refiner- 
ies, wagon  works,  tanneries,  and  breweries,  using  imported 
machinery,  or  that  made  in  the  country  from  imported  iron. 
Locomotives,  boilers,  structural  iron,  and  railroad  cars  are 
among  the  products  of  the  country.  Iron  mines  exist,  but 
are  not  developed,  the  coal  not  being  of  coking  quality. 
Textiles  are  large  imports.  The  British,  German,  Swiss, 
and  other  immigrants  have  had  a  stimulating  effect  upon 
the  growtli  of  industries.* 

The  second  South  American  railroad  was  built  in  Chile. 
There  being  little  interior  navigation,  railroads  are  of  great 
importance.  The  state  line  from  Valparaiso  to  Concepcion 
is  the  principal  road ;  others  extend  from  the  ports  to  the 
mining  or  agricultural  regions.  The  fertile  plain  is  cov- 
ered with  a  network  of  passable  highways.  Steamers  ply 
in  the  coast  trade  ;  Valparaiso  f  has  regular  steamship  con- 
nections with  Panama,  Liverpool,  and  Hamburg. 

*  The  people,  isolated  by  their  mountains  and  the  sea,  are  conserva- 
tive and  not  very  progressive.  Their  resources  are  largely  undeveloped. 
Foreign  capital  works  their  nitrate  beds  and  builds  their  railroads. 

f  Valparaiso  is  the  most  important  port  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America.  It  receives  nine  tenths  of  the  Chilean  imports  and 
sends  out  a  third  of  the  exports.  Santiago,  the  capital,  is  in  the  gar- 
den region  of  the  country,  on  the  edge  of  a  fertile  plain  irrigated  by 
canals  from  the  Maipo  River.  Talca,  finely  situated  in  a  fertile  plain, 
is  a  trade  center  connecting  with  the  port  of  Constitucion,  which  has 
some  foreign  commerce.  Chilian  is  a  large  cattle  market.  Tome  is 
the  best  harbor  in  the  Bay  of  Concepcion.  Concepcion  is  the  trading 
center  for  all  the  region  as  far  south  as  the  Imperial  River.  Its  port  is 
Talcahnano,  which  has  a  dry  dock.  The  Biobio  is  the  largest  river  in 
Chile,  and  is  navigable  for  some  distance.  Arauco  and  Lebu  are  ports 
for  coal  shipments.  Valdivia,  exporting  liidos,  lumber,  cattle,  and 
lager  beer,  has  been  developed  largely  through  the  enterprise  of  the 
German  colonists  in  South  Chile.  Puerlo  Montt,  at  the  south  end  of 
the  great  central  plain  of  (!liile.  is  another  Gorman  center.  North  of 
Valparaiso,  Lu  Serena  exports  copper  through  the  port  of  Cotpiiiubo. 


368  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  largest  imports  are  textiles,  sugar,  coal,  cattle,  iron, 
and  tea.  The  largest  exports  are  nitrate,  copper,  silver, 
wheat,  iodine,  and  sole  leather.  Trade  with  the  United 
States  is  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  or  Magellan 
Straits. 

STATISTICS   FOR   PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA, 

AND   CHILE 

Paraguay 

Annual  Trade  (in  JliUion  Dollars) 

1896. 

Imports 2.5 

Exports 2.3 

Population  (1895),  502,000. 

Uruguay 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1892-'96.  1897. 

Imports 22.0  21.2 

Exports 30.0  31.7 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries,  1899  {in  Million  Dollars) 
France.  Belgium.  England.  Germany.  United  States. 

5.0  5.3  2.9  2.8  1.0 

Imports  from  Leading  Countries,  1899  {in  Million  Dollars) 

England.       France.       Germany.       Italy.       Spain.       United  States.       Belgium. 

6.8  2.6  2.3  2.3         1.9  1.9  l.-l 

Population  (1897),  840,735. 


1898. 

1899. 

2.6 

2.5 

2.4 

2.3 

Caldera  is  the  port  of  the  mining  town  of  Copiapo ;  the  railroad  con- 
necting them  is  the  oldest  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Taltal,  the  most  south- 
ern of  the  nitrate  ports,  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  diggings  nearest 
to  it,  Antofagasta  is  the  largest  center  of  the  silver  trade  and  the  out- 
let for  most  of  Bolivia's  wool  and  metals  brought  to  the  sea  by  rail. 
Arica  was  formerly  the  port  of  Bolivia,  and  still  commands  a  part  of 
its  trade.  Iquique.  the  largest  of  the  nitrate  port?,  brings  its  drinking 
water  by  an  aqueduct  from  the  Andes.  On  the  Strait  of  Magellan  is 
Punta  Arenas,  a  calling  station  for  all  vessels  passing  through  the 
Straits, 


PARAGUAY,  URUGUAY,  ARGENTINA,  AND  CHILE    3G9 

Argentina 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891-'95.  1900. 

Imports 76.5  99.0  113.4 

Exports 66.0  107.5  154.6 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries,  1900  {in  Million  Dollars) 

Eugland.       Germany.       France.       Belgium.       United  States.       Brazil.       Italy. 

23.9  20.1  19.0  18.0  6.9  6.3        4.3 

Imports  from  Leading  Countries,  1900  {in  Million  Dollars) 

England.       Germany.       Italy.       United  States.       France.       Belgium.       Brazil. 

38.7  16.6  15.0  13.4  10.9  8.4  3.7 

Population  (1899),  4,568,593. 

Gold  and  silver  are  the  monetary  standards,  with  the 
gold  peso  (value  96^  cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage.  Metric 
weights  and  measures. 

Chile 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891-'95  1899 

Imports 43.8  62.2  38.8* 

Exports 53.5  58.0  59.5 

Population  (1895),  3,314,000,  Metric  weights  and  meas- 
ures, but  the  Spanish  standards  are  still  used  to  some 
extent. 

*  Diminution  of  imports  due  to  partial  failure  of  the  grain  crop, 
reducing  the  purchasing  power,  and  to  currency  fluctuations,  discour- 
aging imports  (p.  35). 


24 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

COLOMBIA,    ECUADOR,   PERU,   AND    BOLIVIA 

The  fertile  lands  of  Colombia  would  support  twenty  times 
as  many  people  as  live  on  them.  The  volume  of  commerce 
is  small  in  comparison  with  the  natural  wealth,  and  trade 
is  difficult  from  lack  of  good  interior  communications. 
Most  of  the  people  live  in  the  highlands,  though  more  than 
half  of  Colombia  is  uninhabited  (Fig.  23).  The  climate, 
determining  the  distribution  of  population,  is  similar  to 
that  of  Venezuela — hot  and  malarious  in  the  coast  lowlands, 
cooler  and  healthful  in  the  highlands.  Most  of  the  coastal 
population  live  at  the  seaports. 

The  differing  surface  features  give  variety  to  the  products 
(Fig.  138).  In  the  north  are  plains,  giving  good  pasturage 
for  cattle,  while  large  coffee  plantations  cover  the  hill 
slopes  of  Santander.  Among  the  parallel  Andes  ranges 
are  high  plains  where  wheat,  tobacco,  and  other  crops  are 
grown.  East  of  the  mountains  in  the  north  are  selvas  or 
forests  where  rubber  abounds.  South  of  the  selvas  extend 
the  open  prairie  lands  of  the  llanos,  where  many  cattle  feed 
on  the  rich  herbage.  South  of  the  llanos  is  another  region 
of  selvas  and  rubber.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  of  little 
value  to  Colombia's  commerce.  Its  railroad,  owned  by 
foreigners,  is  merely  a  means  of  transport  for  the  commerce 
(duty  free)  of  other  nations. 

There   are  three    natural    means    of   penetration.     The 

Atrato  Eiver  is  navigable  almost  to  its  source  near  Lloro, 

but  its  low  valley  is  insalubrious,  and  settlements  are  few. 

The  Cauca  is  navigable  in  its  lower  part,  and  the  whole  val- 

370 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR 
A5D  PERU. 


)  70  •  ait V 


Fk;.  m. 


371 


372  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

ley  is  a  highway  frequented  by  mule  trains ;  it  is  one  of  the 
most  populous  regions.  The  Magdalena,  into  which  the 
Cauca  empties,  is  navigable  with  difficulty  for  600  miles  to 
a  little  below  Honda,  and  is  the  route  to  Bogota,  the  cap- 
ital.* The  journey  from  Barranquilla  to  Bogota  requires 
twelve  or  fourteen  days.  All  the  highland  plains  are 
reached  from  the  Cauca  valley  or  the  Magdalena  only  by 
tedious  and  expensive  Journeys  on  the  mule  paths.  Freight 
must  be  specially  packed  for  mule  carriage. 

Agriculture  yields  little  but  coffee  and  tobacco  for  export. 
Most  farm  products  are  raised  for  home  consumption. 
Fine  wheat  grows  on  the  mountain  plains,  but  it  is  cheaper 
to  import  flour  for  the  coast  population  than  to  carry 
wheat  to  the  coast.  Coffee,  the  staple  export,  is  shipped  by 
the  Magdalena  to  Barranquilla  or  eastward  from  Santander 
to  Maracaibo  ;  most  of  it  is  sent  to  Europe.  Sugar  and 
rum,  from  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco  supply  the  local  demand ; 
tobacco  is  grown  in  the  interior,  but  being  very  valuable  in 
proportion  to  weight,  it  can  bear  the  cost  of  transportation, 
and  thus  is  an  export  article ;  cacao,  being  raised  near  the 
sea,  is  easily  sent  to  the  ports. 

Hides  and  cattle  are  considerable  exports.  The  llanos 
might  easily  become  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  leather  ; 
some  jerked  beef  is  jjrepared,  and  many  towns  are  suj^plied 
with  fresh  beef  from  the  herds  on  the  high  plains.  Sheep 
are  raised  for  mutton  and  wool. 

Rubber  is  the  most  important  forest  product.  It  is  mainly 
gathered  in  the  southern  forests ;  the  increased  price  is. 
stimulating  the  industry.  Ivory  nuts,  copaiba,  balsam  of 
tolu,  and  dyewoods  are  also  exported,  f 

*  A  railroad  is  projected  and  partly  built  to  connect  Honda  with 
Bogota.  Meanwhile  the  cost  of  freightage  between  the  two  towns  is 
about  $5  a  mule  load  (250  pounds). 

f  The  ivory  nut  (vegetable  ivory)  is  the  seed  of  a  tropical  American 
palm,  very  hard  and  white,  resembling  ivory  and  used  as  a  substitute 
for  it.     Copaiba  and  tolu  are  balsams  used  in  medical  practice. 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR.  PERU,  AND   BOLIVIA        373 

Silver,  gold,  and  minerals  are  exported.  All  the  moun- 
tain provinces  are  rich  in  minerals,  and  are  said  to  have 
yielded  8300,000,000  in  precious  metals  during  the  Spanish 
occupancy ;  but  mining  has  greatly  declined  in  recent  years. 
The  emerald  mines  of  Muzo,  75  miles  from  Bogota,  have 
supplied  stones  for  all  the  world's  markets.*  Pearls  are 
obtained  in  Panama  Bay. 

Manufactures  are  little  developed.  The  abundance  of 
iron  and  coal  in  the  south  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of 
pig  and  wrought  iron,  rails,  and  other  articles  at  Bogota  for 
local  use.  Other  industries  in  the  larger  towns  include 
soap  and  candles,  straw  hats,  tobacco  products,  tanneries, 
shoe  factories,  breweries,  and  distilleries.  Most  of  the  sole 
leather  is  made  at  Barranquilla  f  and  turned  into  boots  and 
shoes,  but  the  imports  from  Europe  are  large.  Many  other 
articles,  more  or  less  crude,  are  made  for  home  use. 

The  principal  imports  are  foodstuffs,  textiles,  and  iron  and 
steel  goods.     Though  the  population  is  a  third  larger  tlian 

*  Emerald  mining  was  entirely  suspended  during  the  latest  revolu- 
tion (1900). 

f  Barranquilla,  having  the  best  port  on  the  coast  (Sabanilla)  and  on 
the  navigable  Magdalena,  is  naturally  the  leading  commercial  town, 
commanding  the  larger  part  of  the  sea  trade  ;  large  vessels  can  not  en- 
ter the  Magdalena,  and  freight  is  transferred  to  and  from  Sabanilla  by 
lighters.  Cartagena,  once  the  leading  port,  has  declined  owing  to  the 
silting  of  its  harbor.  Colon  and  Panama  are  merely  way  stations  for 
the  traffic  across  the  isthmus.  Buenaventura,  the  only  important  har- 
bor, except  Panama,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  is  a  gateway  for  the  agricul- 
tural communities  of  the  upper  Cauca  valley.  Bogota,  the  most  beau- 
tiful city  of  South  America,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  over  8,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  the  midst  of  a  great,  fertile  plain,  which  made  this 
large,  isolated  city  possible.  Medellin,  the  second  largest  citj',  is  in  a 
fertile  valley,  where  large  crops  and  many  cattle  are  raised,  and  is  a 
center  of  gold  mining.  Sonson  has  rich  pastures  and  is  an  important 
trade  center.  In  favorable  seasons  steamers  can  ascend  the  Orinoco 
and  Meta  rivers  from  the  Atlantic  to  Cabugaro,  160  miles  from  Bogota. 
The  gold,  tobacco,  and  cacao  exports  of  Bucarananga  gave  it  impor- 
tance, but  these  industries  have  declined. 


374  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

that  of  Venezuela  the  imports  are  much  smaller ;  it  is  so 
difficult  for  the  people  in  the  highlands,  without  good  com- 
munications, to  establish  trade  relations  with  foreign  coun- 
tries that  they  do  without  many  articles  that  Venezuela 
buys.  The  exports,  coffee,  hides,  gold,  silver,  tobacco,  and 
other  articles,  are  those  that  can  best  be  delivered  at  the 
ports,  or  whose  value  makes  it  profitable  to  do  so  in  spite 
of  costly  carriage.  The  United  States  receives  a  fourth  of 
the  exports  and  sends  a  fourth  of  the  imports.  The  repub- 
lic has  steamship  connections  with  the  United  States,  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  France,  British  vessels  carrying  more 
than  half  the  trade. 

Ecuador  has  many  of  the  vegetable  products  of  all  latitudes 
(p.  6).  The  western  lowlands  have  tropical  forests,  a  large 
variety  of  useful  tropical  plants,  and  light,  thin-walled 
houses.  On  the  central  highlands  are  villages  of  stone  and 
adobe  surrounded  by  fields  of  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  and 
lucerne,  above  which  tower  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  the 
Andes.  The  eastern  lowlands  are  a  region  of  forests,  with 
resources  in  rubber  and  gold.  The  country  is  thus  able  to 
produce  many  commodities  that  the  world  buys,  but  very 
few  of  them  are  sent  to  foreign  markets.  The  roads  in  the 
interior  are  merely  mule  tracks.  Xo  wheat  is  brought 
down  to  the  coast  towns,  which  depend  upon  foreign  flour 
for  their  bread.  The  region  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil 
and  the  basin  of  the  Eio  Guayas,  north  of  the  gulf,  are  the 
best  tilled  and  most  fertile  districts. 

Ecuador  is  the  largest  source  of  cacao  (p.  72).  It  is  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  country.  The  plantations  send  the 
product  to  Guayaquil  by  river  steamboat  or  railroad,  most 
of  it  being  exported,  though  considerable  is  consumed  in 
the  local  chocolate  factories.  Cacao  is  three  fourths  or 
more  of  the  total  exports.* 

*  Coffee  is  of  superior  quality,  and  is  second  in  importance  among 
the  exports.      The   sugar,   manufactured  from  sugar  cane,   tobacco, 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR,  PERU,  AND  BOLIVIA        375 

Animal  raising  is  largely  confined  to  cattle  to  supply 
the  home  demand  for  beef.  Hides  are  sent  chiefly  to  the 
United  States.  The  high  price  of  rubber,  the  most  im- 
portant among  the  forest  products,  is  stimulating  collectors 
to  work  this  new  field.  Much  vegetable  ivory  is  obtained 
nearer  the  sea. 

Little  attention  is  paid  to  the  mineral  industries,  though 
gold  is  washed  from  the  gravel  in  the  extreme  north  and 
extracted  from  the  ore  at  Zaruma  in  the  southwest.  The 
copper  and  petroleum  resources  have  not  been  developed. 

The  making  of  so-called  Panama  hats  is  the  industry 
best  known  in  other  lands.  These  hats,  which  derive  their 
name  merely  from  the  fact  that  they  are  forwarded  through 
Panama,  are  made  by  coast  Indians  from  the  fine  straw  of 
the  toquilla.  Many  qualities  are  produced,  the  best  hats 
bringing  very  high  prices.* 

Most  of  the  other  industries  are  at  Guayaquil. f  As 
there  are  few  manufactures,  except  the  products  of  a  small 
number  of  woolen  and  cotton  mills,  saw  mills,  chocohite 
works,  soap  factories,  and  breweries,  the  im.ports  are  mainly 
manufactures  and  foodstuffs. 

fruits,  and  other  agricultural  products  are  nearly  all  consumed  at 
home. 

*  The  hats  are  plaited  while  the  air  is  humid,  between  midnight 
and  7  A.  M.  The  straw  is  carefully  selected  and  divided  into  the 
requisite  widths  with  the  thumb  nail.  The  plaiting  begins  at  the  apex 
of  the  crown  and  continues  in  circular  form  till  the  hat  is  finished. 
The  work  requires  patience,  fine  sight,  and  special  skill.  Efforts  to 
induce  the  Indians  to  make  forms  popular  in  foreign  markets  have  not 
succeeded,  Indians  in  north  Peru  also  make  hats  of  Ecuadorian  straw 
and  of  the  desired  forms. 

•{•  Guayaquil  has  the  best  harbor  on  tiie  west  coast  of  South  America 
and  handles  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade  of  Ecuador;  the  only  railroad 
extends  from  Guayaquil,  sixty  miles  east  on  the  way  to  Quito.  IVlanta 
is  one  of  a  number  of  small  harbors  that  export  the  products  of  the 
surrounding  districts.  Esnieraldas  is  the  port  nearest  to  Quito,  but. 
as  its  entrance  is  obstructed  by  a'  bar,  the  capital  city  depends  upon 
Guayaquil.    Quito  has  little  industrial  or  commercial  importance. 


3Y6  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

One  third  of  tlie  exports  go  to  France.  That  country 
and  Spain  are  the  largest  purchasers  of  cacao,  France  con- 
suming enormous  quantities  of  chocolate,  and  Spain  esteem- 
ing cocoa  as  second  only  to  wine  as  a  beverage.  The  United 
States  and  England  each  buy  about  an  eighth  of  the  ex- 
ports. San  Francisco  and  New  York  import  large  quan- 
tities of  cacao,  both  for  chocolate  and  cocoa.  The  United 
States  contributes  about  a  fourth  of  the  imports,  flour, 
lard,  kerosene,  lumber,  and  machinery  being  the  chief 
items.  Cotton  and  woolen  textiles  are  the  largest  imports 
from  Europe. 

Sugar  and  metals  are  the  most  important  exports  of  Peru. 
The  long,  narrow  strip  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea 
is  a  desert  whose  monotony  is  relieved  only  by  the  irrigated 
farms  and  plantations  in  the  river  valleys.  The  streams, 
fed  by  the  melting  snow  of  the  Andes,  flow  west  to  the 
ocean,  imparting  life  to  their  valleys,  which  are  covered 
with  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  tobacco  plantations.  Behind 
the  desert  intersected  by  these  zones  of  vegetation  rise  the 
barren  heights  of  the  Cordilleras,  whose  economic  impor- 
tance is  due  to  their  vast  stores  of  mineral  wealth  and 
the  streams  they  send  through  the  desert.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  mountains,  sloping  to  the  head  streams  of  the 
Amazon,  are  dense  forests,  rich  in  rubber  and  cinchona ;  * 
and  fertile  lowlands  adapted  for  most  cultural  plants  of 
the  tropics. 

Sugar  cane  and  cotton  are  the  agricultural  specialties. 
Sugar  is  the  largest  export.  Cane  is  grown  in  the  river  val- 
leys along  the  entire  coast.  The  fields  being  cheaply  irri- 
gated, and  the  absence  of   rain  permitting  grinding  for 

*  Quinine,  used  for  malarial  diseases,  is  obtained  from  the  bark 
of  various  trees  of  the  genus  cinchona.  These  trees,  though  native  in 
South  America,  have  been  introduced  into  Java,  India,  and  other  trop- 
ical lands,  from  which  large  quantities  of  quinine  are  now  obtained. 
The  bark  is  known  in  commerce  as  Peruvian  bark,  most  of  the  South 
American  product  coming  from  Peru  and  Bolivia. 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR,  PERU,  AND  BOLIVIA        377 

nine  months  in  the  year,  sugar  is  produced  at  small  cost. 
Five  sixths  of  the  crop  is  exported,  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  and  Chile  being  the  largest  buyers.  Cotton, 
grown  in  north  Peru,  is  next  in  importance.  It  is  a  long, 
staple  fiber,  *  used  in  several  foreign  countries  to  mix  with 
wool  used  in  underwear  and  hosiery,  the  resulting  fabrics 
being  more  durable  and  shrinking  less.  Coffee  is  also  im- 
portant, but  the  plantations  being  on  the  Andes  slopes,  a 
week's  journey  by  mule  train  from  railroads,  the  industry 
is  not  expanding.  As  the  cereals  do  not  meet  the  demand, 
breadstuffs  are  largely  imported.  Coca  leaves  f  and  cocaine 
are  sent  to  many  countries. 

Cattle  are  bred  for  beef  and  hides  which  are  mostly  used 
in  native  leather  work  ;  our  country  takes  about  one  fourth 
of  the  surplus  hides.  Llamas  and  alpacas  are  valuable  as 
beasts  of  burden  and  for  their  wool ;  although,  as  the  alpaca 
can  be  sheared  only  once  in  two  years,  the  returns  are  not 
large.  Iquitos,  J  which  has  direct  steamship  communica- 
tion with  England,  is  the  center  of  the  rubber  industry. 

Minerals  are  the  second  largest  export.  Silver  mines 
are  worked  in  many  parts  of  Peru,  the  most  important  cen^^'^ 
ter  being  Cerro  Pasco,  north  of  the  Oroya  Railroad.  Here 
also  are  immense  copper  deposits,  from  which  Peru  has  re- 
cently begun  to  ship  a  great  deal  of  ore.  The  industry  is 
restricted  by  the  necessity  of  carrying  the  ore  65  miles  on 
the  backs  of  llamas  or  mules  to  the  railroad.  * 

*  The  mean  length  of  the  best  known  cotton  fibers  is :  Sea  Island, 
1.61  inches;  Egyptian,  1.41;  Peruvian,  1.3;  Brazilian,  1.17;  American 
Upland,  1.02;  India,  0.89. 

f  Coca  must  not  be  confounded  with  cacao.  Tlie  powerful  drug 
cocaine  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  the  cultivated  South  American 
shrub,  coca;  the  leaves  are  chewed  by  the  Indians  witii  effects  like 
those  of  opium. 

J  Iquitos  has  been  brought  within  twenty  days  of  Lima  by  a  good 
road  from  the  terminus  of  the  Oroya  R.  R.  to  Puerto  Bermudcz,  whence 
steam  launches  descend  to  Iquitos. 

*  It  is  evident  that  when  the  extension  of  the  railroad  to  Cerro 


378  .COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Gold  mining  is  diflBciilt,  and  the  output  is  small.  Pe- 
troleum, obtained  in  the  north,  near  Payta,  is  used  as  fuel 
in  factories  and  refined  for  domestic  use.  Its  quality  is 
not  equal  to  the  imported  American  kerosene,  though  the 
Peruvian  oil  is  cheaper. 

A  few  cotton  and  woolen  mills  at  Lima,  Arequipa,  and 
other  towns  consume  part  of  the  raw  cotton  and  wool  and 
have  diminished  the  imports  of  the  coarser  fabrics.  Callao 
has  match,  soap,  and  candle  factories,  and  Lima  makes 
beer  and  artificial  ice  ;  boot-making  is  an  industry  in  many 
towns.  The  "  Panama  hats  "  made  by  Indians  near  Payta 
and  Piura  are  exported  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000  a 
year.  With  manufacturing  industries  so  little  developed 
the  imports  of  textiles,  hardware,  and  machinery  are  nat- 
urally large.* 

More  than  one  third  of  the  imports  are  bought  in  England. 
The  largest  imports  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  iron  and 
its  manufactures,  and  machinery.  Grocery  supplies  are  also 
a  large  item.  Wheat  is  imported  from  Chile  and  the 
United  States.  We  also  sell  to  Peru  lumber,  railroad  ties, 
agricultural  and  mining  machinery,  and  a  variety  of  other 
articles.     About   half  the   exports  go  to  England;   more 

Pasco  is  completed,  copper  mining  will  have  much  greater  develop- 
ment. As  both  silver  and  copper  ores  are  smelted,  much  silver  and 
copper,  as  well  as  their  ores,  are  exported. 

*  Pig.  138  shows  the  ports,  most  of  them  small,  through  which  the 
coasting  business  and  the  foreign  trade  of  the  republic  is  transacted. 
Most  of  them  are  connected  by  rail  with  the  capitals  of  the  provinces 
in  which  they  are  situated.  The  longest  railroad  lines  are  those  from 
Chimbote  to  the  mining  regions  in  the  heart  of  the  Cordilleras,  from 
Callao  through  Lima  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains — one  of  the 
greatest  achievements  of  railroad  construction,  and  from  i\lollendo  to 
Lake  Titicaca,  on  which  steamboats  ply,  giving  Bolivia  an  outlet 
through  Peru.  Puno,  the  port  on  Lake  Titicaca,  is  one  of  the  largest 
centers  of  silver  mining.  Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  through  the 
port  of  Callao  (Fig.  15).  Lima,  the  capital,  is  built  of  adobe  or  sun- 
dried  bricks. 


1 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR,  PERU,  AND  BOLIVIA        379 

than  half  of  our  large  purchases  from  Peru  are  sugar,  cot- 
ton, and  goatskins. 

Bolivia  is  a  great  producer  of  silver,  tin,  and  copper. 
These  metals  are  the  largest  j)art  of  the  exports.  The 
western  plateau,  which,  surmounted  by  Cordilleran  ranges, 
is  cold  and  healthful,  contains  most  of  this  mineral  wealth. 
Deep  valleys,  some  thousands  of  feet  below  the  general 
level,  permit  the  cultivation  of  the  cereals  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  temperate  zone  in  some  places,  and  of  semi- 
tropical  products  in  others  (Fig.  139).  These  valleys 
supply  the  foodstuffs,  including  fruits,  required  by  the 
inhabitants.  The  transitions  from  cold  to  warm  climates, 
due  to  differences  of  altitude  on  this  plateau,  are  most 
abrupt.*  The  lower  lands  of  the  north  and  east  are  still 
largely  unexplored,  but  the  north  is  rich  in  rubber  and  the 
east  in  pasturage. 

SUver  is  the  most  abundant  metal  (Fig.  70).  The  ores  in 
most  of  the  mines  are  extremely  rich.  The  output,  how- 
ever, has  recently  fallen  off  on  account  of  civil  war  and  the 
partial  flooding  of  the  Huanchaca  mines  with  hot  water. 
Tin  is  found  associated  with  silver  in  many  places,  and  is 
the  second  largest  export  (Fig.  66).  About  3,000  tons  of 
copper  are  shipped  to  Europe  every  year,  mostly  from  Mol- 
lendo.  f 

With  no  seacoasts,  Bolivia  must  send  all  exports  through 
foreign  lands.  Many  of  the  ores  and  metals  are  carried  by 
mule  or  llama  trains  long  distances  to  railroads,  whose 
freights  are  very  high.  When  the  shipments  reach  the  sea 
they  are  still  many  thousands  of  miles  from  markets ;  few 
products  less  valuable  than  silver,  tin,  and  copper  could 

*  A  gentleman  in  La  Paz  may  send  a  servant  in  the  morning  to  the 
heights  above  to  bring  down  a  load  of  ice  for  tlic  household,  and  an- 
other to  the  lower  levels  for  pineajjples  and  other  tropical  fruits  ;  both 
will  return  at  noon  with  their  commodities. 

f  Very  little  gold  is  mined.  Bismuth,  antimony,  and  borax  are  in 
large  supply,  but  scarcely  figure  in  the  exports. 


380 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Antof agast  a^   _L 


Fig.  139. — Ohservp  the  two  ontlots  for  Bolivia's  products  by  rail  (11  from  Puno  to 
Alollendo  through  Peru,  and  (3)  from  Oruro  to  Antofagasta  through  Chile;  the 
third  outlet  is  by  pack  trail  to  Jujuy,  connecting  there  with  the  Argentine  rail- 
roads (Fig.  137).  At  Lake  Ascotan  larse  borax  works  are  operated.  In  this 
region  the  vicuna,  a  wild,  active  animal  of  the  Andes,  is  hunted  for  its  wool, 
which  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  alpaca.  Mining  is  confined  to  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  country.  Indians  carry  great  quantities  of  salt  to  the  mining 
centers  for  the  reduction  of  ores.  The  Huanchaca  silver  mines,  the  richest  in 
Bolivia,  supplied  the  money  to  build  the~costly  railroad  to  Antofagasta.  The 
country  is  well  populated  between  Huanchaca  and  Oruro,  and  the  valley  farm 
lands  are  well  tilled.  Oruro,  Colquechaca.  and  Potosi  are  the  centers  of  the  great- 
est number  of  mines,  Oruro  being  most  important  since  the  railroad  reached  it. 
Sucre,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  is  a  center  for  the  cereals  and  other  products' 
of  the  temperate  zone.  La  Paz.  the  capital,  is  a  busy  commercial  center.  North 
of  it  are  fertile  valleys  supplying  tropical  products.  Still  farther  north  is  the  for- 
est and  rubber  region  of  the  Beni  River  in  the  Amazon  basin.  In  the  eastern 
lowlands  of  Santa  Cruz  province  are  vast  estates  and  numerous  cattle,  which  are 
almost  valueless  for  lack  of  transportation.  East  of  Oruro  is  the  rich  agricul- 
tural district  of  Cochabamba,  lower  lying  and  genial  in  climate.  Tarija,  in  the 
south,  is  famous  for  its  fertile  soil  and  large  crops. 

bear  the  high  tax  of  such  expensive  transportation.  The 
cost  of  marketing  metals  is,  in  fact,  retarding  the  develop- 
ment of  Bolivian  mining  industries. 


COLOMBIA,  ECUADOR.  PERU,  AND  BOLIVIA        3S1 

Rubber  follows  the  metals  in  export  importance.  The 
shipments  from  the  Beiii  region  are  estimated  at  800  tons 
a  year.  A  great  deal  of  Bolivian  rubber,  however,  is  sent 
down  the  rivers  to  Para  and  classed  as  Brazilian  rubber.  A 
road  has  been  built  around  the  cataracts  of  the  Madeira  to 
facilitate  carriage  to  the  Atlantic. 

Agricultural  products  supply  only  home  needs.  A  little 
coffee,  cacao,  and  coca  are  sent  to  Chile,  but  the  maize, 
wheat,  barley,  and  other  temj)erate  or  subtropical  crops  are 
barely  suflBcient  for  the  local  demand.  Beef  is  largely  con- 
sumed, but  many  cattle  are  imported  from  Argentina. 

Bolivia  does  not  figure  directly  as  an  importing  and  ex- 
porting country  because  it  carries  on  all  its  foreign  trade 
through  Chile,  Peru,  Argentina,  and  Brazil.  Statistics  of 
the  trade  are  only  approximate.  As  the  country  is  almost 
destitute  of  manufactures,  ready-made  clothing,  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  and  hardware  are  the  leading  imports.  Our 
trade  returns  show  almost  no  business  with  Bolivia,  though, 
in  fact,  a  considerable  quantity  of  our  commodities  going 
to  that  country  are  classed  as  Chilean  because  consigned  to 
a  Chilean  port.  England  and  Germany  have  the  larger 
part  of  the  trade,  and  supply  most  of  the  capital  and  man- 
agement for  the  mining  and  other  enterprises. 

STATISTICS  FOR  COLOMBIA,   ECUADOR,  PERU,  BOLIVIA 

Colombia 

Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

]891-'95.  1898. 

Imports 12.0  11.0 

Exports 17.0  19.3 

Population  (1884),  3,920,207. 

Ecuador 
Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars,  estimated) 

Imports 6.0 

Exports 7.0 

Exports  in  1899 8.1 

Population  (estimated),  1,400,000. 


382  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Peru 

Anmial  Trade  (i/i  llillion  Dollars)* 

1898.  1899. 

Imports 8.1  8.3 

Exports 12.7  13.5 

Bolivia 
Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars,  estimated) 

Imports 10.0 

Exports 12.5 

Population  (1893),  2,869,549. 

*  These  figures  do  not  include  Iquitos,  which  does  over  $2,000,000 
foreign  business  a  year  through  the  Amazon. 


CHAPTEE  XXXYI 

THE    WEST    INDIES    AND    BERMUDA 

The  largest  trade  interests  of  the  West  Indies  are  with  the 
TJnited  States.  It  is  the  nearest  and  best  market  for  the 
sugar,  tobacco,  cacao,  and  fruits,  which  are  their  chief  prod- 
ucts. It  is  also  the  nearest  and  best  source  of  supply  for 
the  flour  and  provisions  which  they  must  import.  Xearly 
all  the  islands,  even  the  smaller  ones,  have  the  advantage 
of  regular  and  frequent  steamship  communications  with 
the  United  States  and  Europe.  While  their  commercial 
interests  are  closely  identified  with  the  United  States,  they 
are  all  politically  attached  to  European  countries,  except 
Porto  Eico  (pp.  168-170),  Cuba  (pp.  177-181),  and  the  negro 
republics,  Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti.  The  soil  of  the  Ba- 
hamas is  not  rich,  but  in  the  other  islands  it  is  extremely 
fertile,  producing  a  large  variety  of  tropical  products.  The 
greatest  disadvantage  is  the  hurricanes,  occurring  usually  in 
August  or  the  fall  months,  which  sometimes  destroy  much 
property.  The  decline  in  the  price  of  cane  sugar,  in  re- 
cent years,  has  depressed  industry  and  trade  to  a  deplorable 
extent. 

Coffee  is  the  chief  product  of  the  republic  of  Haiti.*  It  is 
particiiTarly  esteemed  in  France,  which  takes  two  thirds  of 
the  exports,  very  little  coming  to  our  market,  as  Brazilian 
coffee  is  cheaper  and  gives  larger  profit  to  importers.     The 


*The  republic  occupies  the  western  tJiirtl  of  the  island  of  Haiti, 
which  is  nearly  as  large  as  South  Carolina.  The  republic  of  Santo 
Domingo  occupies  the  eastern  two  thirds.  The  inhabitants  of  Haiti 
are  French-speaking  negroes,  while  the  negroes  and  half-l)reeds  of 
Santo  Domingo  speak  Sj)anish, 

383 


384  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

plantations  on  the  mountain  slopes  produce  so  much  cof- 
fee that  the  republic  is  sometimes  next  to  the  leading  cof- 
fee countries  in  exports.  Logwood  and  cacao  are  other  im- 
portant sales  abroad,  most  of  the  exports  going  to  France, 
Germany,  and  England,  The  United  States  supplies  more 
than  half  of  the  imports,  and  monopolizes  the  trade  in 
breadstuffs,  kerosene,  and  coarse  cotton  textiles.  The 
country  has  very  little  development,  even  the  coffee  and 
cacao  being  left  to  nature  after  planting.  The  inland 
communications  are  so  poor  that  many  of  the  people  prefer 
to  go  from  one  to  another  of  the  ports  on  the  slow  and  un- 
comfortable coasting  schooners.  Port  au  Prince  nearly 
monopolizes  the  foreign  trade.  Cape  Haitien  and  Aux  Cayes 
also  having  some  importance. 

Sugar,  tobacco,  and  cacao  are  the  leading  industries  and 
exports  of  Santo  Domingo.  Much  divi-divi  *  is  also  exported. 
Nearly  all  the  exports  come  to  the  United  States,  which 
supplies  more  than  half  of  the  imports.  Santo  Domingo, 
the  capital,  on  the  south  coast,  and  the  still  more  important 
Puerto  Plata  on  the  north  coast,  are  the  chief  ports. 

The  British  West  Indies  commercially  far  surpass  the 
other  European  colonies.  The  Bahamas  (Fig.  20)  are  the 
most  northern ;  their  mild  and  agreeable  climate  makes 
^Nassau,  the  largest  town,  a  winter  health  resort.  The 
United  States  has  four  fifths  of  the  total  trade,  as  the  prox- 
imity of  the  islands,  three  steamers  a  month  from  New 
York  and  cheap  freight  rates,  favor  the  closest  trade  rela- 
tions. The  main  support  of  the  islands  is  collecting  and 
shipping  sponges  (p.  88),*  a  business  that  brings  to  the  is- 
lands nearly  $500,000  a  year.  The  fruit  trade  is  the  next 
largest  source  of  income,  millions  of  pineapples  and  oranges, 
besides  guavas,  mangoes,  and  grape-fruit,  being  exported 

*  Divi-divi,  a  tropical  American  shrub  valued  for  its  pods,  contain- 
ing tannin  and  gallic  acid,  is  used  to  tan  leather  and  dye  cloth. 

f  In  August,  1899,  several  hundred  of  the  sponge  fishermen  were 
drowned  by  the  sinking  of  their  vessels  in  a  severe  hurricane. 


THE  WEST  INDIES  AND  BERMUDA  385 

to  this  country.  The  cultivation  of  henequen  is  also  a 
growing  industry.  The  largest  imports,  in  order  of  impor- 
tance, are  textiles,  flour,  canned  goods,  hardware,  fresh  and 
salt  meats,  lumber,  sugar,  and  rice. 

Xearly  half  of  the  exports  of  Jamaica  (Fig.  20)  are 
fruit,  chiefly  bananas,  most  of  which  are  owned  and  trans- 
ported by  an  American  company  that  has  large  similar  in- 
terests in  some  of  the  other  islands.  Sugar,  rum,  coffee, 
pimento,  and  Jamaica  ginger  *  are  other  important  exports. 
Cotton  goods,  codfish,  flour,  and  rice  are  the  largest  im- 
ports. More  than  half  the  total  trade  is  with  the  United 
States,  even  the  imports  from  this  country  being  larger 
than  from  England. 

The  other  British  islands  and  the  possessions  of  France, 
Denmark,  and  the  Netherlands  are  in  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
the  island  chain  that  develops  a  graceful  curve  between 
Porto  Rico  and  South  America.  The  outlying  island  of 
Barbados  is  the  most  important  of  the  minor  British  pos- 
sessions. It  is  the  largest  sugar  producer  in  the  British 
West  Indies.  Nearly  every  available  acre  is  in  sugar,f  with 
the  result  that  the  home-grown  food  supply,  mostly  sweet 
potatoes  and  yams,  is  not  sufficient  to  feed  one  tenth  of  the 
dense  population.  Famine  would  ensue  if  food  imports 
were  discontinued  for  a  month.  The  United  States  sup- 
plies all  the  food,  except  the  little  that  Canada  sends. 
Nearly  everything  that  Barbados  buys,  except  clothing, 
boots,  and  hats,  comes  from  this  country.  The  famous 
Muscovado  (unrefined  cane  sugar)  of  Barbados  is  sent  to 
the  United  States,  which  buys  three  fourths  of  it,  and  to 

*  Pimento  is  the  berry  of  an  evergreen  tree,  more  commonly  called 
allspice  or  Jamaica  pepper,  used  as  a  spice  in  cookery.  The  best  Ja- 
maica ginger  has  the  reputation  of  being  uncqualed.  Its  cultivalinn, 
however,  is  decreasing,  as  it  is  a  very  exhausting  crop. 

f  The  sugar  factories,  run  by  windmills,  come  to  a  stop  if  the  wind 
is  in  any  direction  except  from  the  northeast,  for  the  mills  are  fixed  to 
catch  only  the  trade  wind, 
85 


386  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

other  British  colonies,  though  it  is  being  shut  out  from 
Great  Britain  by  beet  sugar.  The  harbor  of  Bridgetown, 
the  port,  is  merely  an  open  roadstead, 

Trinidad  (Fig.  135),  near  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  is,  next 
to  Jamaica,  the  largest  of  the  British  West  Indies.  Sugar 
is  its  largest  crop,  though  cacao  is  nearly  as  important. 
The  distinctive  product  is  asphalt  *  from  the  Brea  or  Pitch 
Lake.  Sugar,  cacao,  and  molasses  are  the  chief  exports. 
As  the  island  does  not  produce  all  the  food  it  needs,  flour, 
plantains  from  Venezuela,  and  other  foodstuffs,  as  well  as 
textiles,  spirits,  and  machinery,  are  large  imports.  The 
neighboring  island  of  Tobago  exports  cotton,  rum,  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  tobacco. f 

The  few  small  islands  included  in  the  French,  Danish, 
and  Dutch  possessions  have  little  trade  except  with  the 
mother  countries. 

Bermuda's  chief  commercial  relations  are  with  the  United 
States.  This  group  (Fig.  20),  the  most  northern  coral  is- 
lands in  the  world,  has  an  area  of  only  nineteen  and  one 
half  square  miles.  There  are  no  manufactures  or  railroads, 
and  the  sole  industry  is  agriculture ;  trade  is  restricted  to 

*  The  pitch  lake  of  Trinidad  is  the  most  notable  source  of  asphalt, 
which  is  used  in  several  countries  in  street  pavements,  in  roofing  mate- 
rials, and  for  other  purposes.  About  100,000  tons  a  year  are  imported 
into  the  United  States  by  the  American  company  that  leases  the  lake. 
The  removal  of  this  amount  is  equivalent  to  lowering  the  surface  of  the 
lake  about  six  inches,  the  material  taken  away  being  replaced  by  semi- 
liquid  pitch  forced  to  the  surface  through  many  blowholes.  The  pitch, 
broken  up  for  shipment  into  pieces  weighing  twenty  to  thirty  pounds, 
is  carried  on  cars  and  dumped  directly  into  the  hold  of  the  vessels 
which  bring  it  to  this  country. 

f  The  British  West  Indies  also  include  quite  a  number  of  islands  in 
the  Leeward  and  "Windward  islands,  whose  total  trade  is  not  more  than 
half  that  of  Barbados.  They  have  suffered  severely  from  the  decline 
in  the  price  of  sugar.  Some  islands,  exporting  arrowroot  as  well  as 
sugar,  have  thrived  no  better,  as  the  markets  have  been  overstocked 
with  arrowroot,  which  is  the  starch  from  a  tropical  root  esteemed  as 
food  for  infants  and  invalids. 


THE   WEST   INDIES  AND   BERMUDA  387 

the  needs  of  about  20,000  inhabitants  and  2,000  tourists, 
still  the  foreign  commerce  is  about  82,500,000  a  year.  The 
United  States  takes  practically  all  the  exports,  three  fifths 
of  which  consists  of  onions,  one  fifth  of  potatoes,  and  most 
of  the  remainder  of  lily  bulbs.  Onions  and  lilies  are  often 
grown  side  by  side  in  alternate  patches.  Bermuda's  ad- 
vantage in  onion  and  potato  exports  is  that  they  reach  our 
markets  before  our  own  crops  come  in,  the  earliest  onions 
being  ready  for  market  before  the  end  of  the  year.  Two 
crops  of  potatoes  are  grown  in  the  year,  one  harvested 
about  Christmas  and  the  other  in  March.  Lily  blooms 
are  sent  to  Xew  York  as  cut  flowers  for  the  Easter  trade, 
but  the  large  export  is  lily  bulbs,  which,  when  matured, 
are  shipped  to  Xew  York,  where  they  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  quality  and  sold  to  the  hothouse  trade  to  be  planted 
under  glass  for  the  Eastern  market.  About  three  fifths  of 
the  imports  are  derived  from  this  country.  As  Bermuda 
has  no  manufactures  and  very  few  animals,  it  needs  large 
quantities  of  flour,  meats,  dairy  products,  textiles,  and  hard- 
ware. It  buys  from  the  United  States  and  other  countries 
over  three  times  as  much  as  it  sells  to  them,  much  of  the 
money  spent  in  other  lands  coming  back  to  the  islands 
from  the  many  tourists  who  go  to  Bermuda  to  enjoy  the 
genial  winter  climate.  St.  George  is  a  naval  station  ;  Ham- 
ilton, the  political  and  commercial  center,  has  regular 
steamship  connections  with  Xew  York.  A  cable  connects 
the  islands  with  Halifax. 

STATISTICS  FOR  THE   WEST   INDIES  AND  BERMUDA 

British  West  Indies 

Leeward  Windward  Trinidad 

Bahamas.    Jamaica.    Islands.      Islands.    Barbados,    and  Tnlmgo. 

Population..   53,256       727,636    127,723    136,483     200,000        200,000 

Average  Annual  Imports  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85 1.0  7.5  2.3  2.0  5.4  12.8 

1891-95 0.9  10.5  2.3  2.2  5.8  10.9 

1899       1.6  8.0(1898)—  —  5.0  12.3 


388  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Average  Annual  Exports  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85 0.7  7.2  2.7  2.5  5.8  12.5 

1891-'95 0.6  9.5  2.3  2.6  4.6  10.8 

1899        0.8  7.0(1898)—  —  4.2  12.6 

Bermuda 

Trade  in  1899  {in  Million  Dollars) 

Imports  from  the  U.  S 1.2  1  Exports  to  the  U.  S 0.57 

Total  imports 1.9|Total  exports 0.61 

Population  (1898),  18,363. 

Trade  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo,  1899  {in  Million  Dollars) 

Haiti.  Santo  Domingo. 

Imports 3.9  1.0 

Exports 12.7  5.8 

Population:    Haiti    (1887),   960,000;    Santo    Domingo 
(1888),  504,000. 


CHAPTEE  XXXVII 

RUSSIAN  ASIA 

Siberia  is  Russia's  reserve  for  its  overflowing  population, 
and  a  market  for  its  manufactures.  Steam  commimications 
having  been  established  by  railroad  and  river  between  St. 
Petersburg  and  Vladivostok,  immigration  has  been  pouring 
into  Siberia  at  a  rate  unparalleled  except  in  the  history  of 
the  United  States.  The  policy  of  the  Czar's  Government 
is  rapidly  to  develop  the  whole  of  habitable  Siberia,  and  to 
keep  out  all  foreign  manufactures  that  Russian  shops  and 
mills  can  supply.* 

The  northern  third  of  Siberia  is  of  little  value  for  com- 
merce. The  region  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Polar 
Circle  is  a  frost-bound  waste,  covered  with  arctic  mosses 
and  lichens  (the  tundra,  Fig.  4),  where  nomad  hunters  and 
fishermen  live,  and  the  ivory  of  the  extinct  mammoth  is  dug 
from  the  ice  or  frozen  soil.     South  of  the  tundra  is  a  con- 

*  In  the  four  years  ending  in  1900  over  700,000  Russian  peasants 
removed  mostly  to  the  farming  districts  of  eastern  Siberia,  being  trans- 
ported on  the  Siberian  Railroad  at  a  merely  nominal  rate  and  established 
on  lands  allotted  to  them.  The  Government  abolished  the  Siberian 
exile  system,  building  prisons  for  the  confinement  of  convicts  sent  to 
that  country,  in  order  that  criminals  shall  not  menace  the  peace  and 
property  of  honest  immigrants.  Free  trade  in  Siberia  was  abandoned 
in  1900,  the  heavy  duties  levied  in  European  Russia  being  now  imposed 
at  the  Siberian  ports  and  frontiers,  in  order  that  the  empire  itself  may 
supply  most  of  Siberia's  needs.  Foreign  vessels  have  been  forbidden 
to  engage  in  trade  between  ports  of  the  Russian  empire,  so  tliat  all  sea 
commerce  between  Russian  and  Siberian  ports  may  be  carried  in  Rus- 
sian bottoms, 

389 


390  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

tinuous  forest  of  conifers,  extending  from  the  Ob  River  to, 
far  beyond  the  Lena,  yielding  lumber  and  abounding  with 
animals  in  whose  fur  there  is  a  large  trade  (pp.  88,  89).* 
In  southern  Siberia  (Fig.  140)  is  the  agricultural  zone, 
stretching  south  to  the  Chinese  frontier.  The  black-earth 
region  of  Russia  is  continued  eastward  in  the  southern  part 
of  Tobolsk  province  and  through  the  middle  of  Tomsk 
province,  making  this  portion  of  Siberia  a  rich  agricultural 
district,  where  most  of  the  colonists  live.  Good  farm  lands 
extend  beyond  the  black-earth  belt  almost  to  Irkutsk. 
Domestic  animals  are  raised,  and  wheat,  rye,  and  oats  are 
large  crops  in  spite  of  the  cold  climate.  Only  a  part  of 
this  fertile  region  is  as  yet  under  cultivation.  The  agricul- 
tural lands  also  include  the  regions  watered  by  the  Amur 
and  the  Ussuri  in  the  extreme  southeast,  still  sparsely  pop- 
ulated, though  recent  immigration  is  mostly  to  that  region. 
Though  wheat  thrives  in  the  west,  it  is  a  poor  crop  in  the 
wet  Amur  region. f  Cattle  for  dairy  products  and  beef  are 
most  numerous  near  the  large  towns. 

The  mineral  resources  are  very  great.  Two  thirds  of  Rus- 
sia's contribution  to  the  gold  output  (Fig.  68)  comes  from 
Siberia,  though  most  of  the  mining  is  confined  to  washing 
placer  gravels,  little  machinery  having  been  introduced  to 
work  the  extensive  quartz  veins.  But  the  development 
even  of  gold  mining  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  resources. 
The  silver  output  is  comparatively  small,  and  little  atten- 
tion is  as  yet  paid  to  other  metals,  though  they  are  abun- 

*  The  forests  are  nearly  iinpeuetraljle.  The  most  experienced  trap- 
pers do  not  venture  far  into  them  without  marking  the  trees. 

f  A  great  deal  of  grain  from  the  western  wheat  lands  is  taken  by 
boat  down  the  Irtysh  and  up  the  Tura  to  Tiuraen,  where  it  is  forwarded 
by  rail  to  Russia.  It  is  also  shipped  east  and  west  on  the  Trans-Sibe- 
rian railroad.  Prince  Krapotkin  and  other  authoritative  writers  do  not 
believe  that  Siberia  will  ever  be  a  large  wheat-exporting  country,  be- 
cause the  mining  regions,  the  middle  Urals,  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe 
will  always  depend  upon  Siberia  for  wheat,  whose  area  of  cultivation  is 
restricted  by  climatic  conditions. 


392  COMMEBCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

dant,  as  well  as  lignite  and  coal  to  a  smaller  extent.  The 
famous  Alibert  graphite  mines,  west  of  Irkutsk,  are  owned 
by  a  firm  of  German  lead-pencil  manufacturers. 

The  industrial  development  is  small.  A  large  number  of 
men  are  employed  in  cutting  lumber  in  the  great  forests 
and  transporting  it  by  water  to  the  chief  towns  on  the 
river  banks.  General  manufactures  have  also  been  estab- 
lished within  a  few  years,  chiefly  at  Tomsk,  which  leads 
in  industrial  occupations,  and  at  Irkutsk.  Most  manu- 
factured articles  are  derived  from  Eussia.  It  is  expected 
that,  with  the  present  rapid  increase  in  population,  Siberia 
will  soon  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  the  manufactures 
consumed. 

The  rivers  are  very  important  in  transportation.  The 
season  of  navigation,  however,  is  only  about  six  months. 
The  Ob  and  Irtysh  are  navigable  almost  to  their  sources,  over 
100  steamers  and  hundreds  of  barges  plying  on  the  Ob 
alone,  while  the  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  many  affluents  are  im- 
portant highways.  Canalized  rivers  and  a  canal  connect 
the  Ob  and  Yenisei,  north  of  Tomsk,  so  that  grain  and 
other  products  of  the  Yenisei  basin  are  carried  by  water  to 
the  Eussian  frontier.*  The  Amur  and  other  rivers  of  east 
Siberia  have  nearly  9,000  miles  of  navigation,  a  considerable 
number  of  large  steamers  plying  on  the  Amur. 

There  are  no  trade  statistics.  Most  of  the  business  is 
done  with  Eussia,  and  a  considerable  amount  with  China, 
though  the  country  is  merely  a  forwarding  agent  to  and 
from  Eussia  for  most  of  the  Chinese  trade.  Vladivostok, 
has  trade  relations  with  west  Europe,  Japan,  Corea,  and 
our  Pacific  coast,  east  Siberia  buying  important  quantities 
of  our  wheat,  flour,  building  materials,  farm  implements, 
and  iron  and  steel  and  their  products.     Siberian  squirrel 

*  The  possibility  of  transshipping  freight  from  the  mouths  of  the 
Ob  and  Yenisei  to  steamships  from  the  Atlantic  has  been  demonstrated, 
but  not  the  commercial  practicability  of  this  route  through  the  ice- 
strewn  Arctic  Ocean. 


RUSSIAN  ASIA  393 

and  other  furs  and  skins  are  sent  to  all  the  fur  markets. 
Siberia  must  be  regarded  as  a  country  of  vast  resources, 
whose  development  on  a  large  scale  is  only  just  beginning. 

Petroleum  is  the  largest  product  of  Caucasia  (Fig.  141).* 
Nearly  the  entire  population  of  the  region  around  Baku  is 
engaged  in  collecting  petroleum  from  deep  wells  and  refin- 
ing the  product  (p.  119).  Much  of  the  oil  is  used  as  fuel 
in  factories,  river  steamers,  and  the  locomotives  of  the 
Trans-Caspian  railroad.  Kerosene  is  sent  to  Batum  for 
shipment  to  Russian  or  foreign  markets,  or  shipped  on  the 
Caspian  and  distributed  widely  through  Eussia  by  Volga 
and  other  river  steamers. 

Among  the  other  products  of  Trans-Caucasia  are  raw 
silk,  a  successful  and  growing  industry,  two  thirds  of  the 
product  being  sent  to  the  Moscow  silk  mills  and  the  re- 
mainder consumed  in  the  country  or  exported  to  Marseilles. 
A  small  part  of  Russia's  cotton  is  grown  in  Caucasian  val- 
leys, and  considerable  wine  is  produced  on  the  mountain 
slopes.  Manufactures  are  unimportant  except  in  Tiflis,  the 
chief  commercial  center  and  the  largest  city  in  Russian 
Asia,  and  Erivan  (Fig.  128),  which  are  noted  for  their  tex- 
tiles, carpets,  embroideries,  and  weapons.  The  Armenians 
are  the  best  workmen,  excelling  particularly  in  metal  work. 
Batum,  the  best  harbor  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Black  Sea, 
exports  petroleum,  wheat,  carpets,  raw  silk,  and  cocoons, 
and  makes  many  thousands  of  wooden  and  tin  cases  in 
which  to  ship  petroleum,  though  a  great  deal  of  it  is  for- 
warded in  bulk. 

Cotton  is  the  largest  export  from  Russian  Central  Asia 
(Fig.  141).  This  great  territory,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
India,  annexed  to  Russia  by  conquest,  is  largely  an  arid 
desert,  except  in  the  eastern  portion,  witli  beautiful  oases 
interspersed  among  the  wastes  of  sand  where  rivers  supply 

*  Russia  incliules  both  North  Jind  Trans-Caufasia  in  its  Asiatic  ter- 
ritory. For  the  climate  of  Caucasia,  see  Fig.  125 ;  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, Fig.  127. 


394  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

water  for  irrigation.  It  was  brought  into  close  commercial 
relations  with  Eussia  only  by  the  building  of  the  Trans- 
Caspian  railroad,  which  extends  from  Krasnovodsk  on  the 
Caspian  to  Tashkent,  with  a  southern  branch  to  Kushk.* 

Xearly  800,000,000  pounds  of  clean  fiber  cotton  are  now 
raised  in  Russian  Central  Asia  every  year,  the  larger  por- 
tion in  Ferghana,  much  of  which  is  shipped  to  Eussia  over 
the  Trans-Caspian  Eailroad.  The  larger  part  of  the  cotton 
is  grown  from  the  seed  of  American  upland,  which  thrives 
in  Ferghana  and  brings  a  better  price  than  the  Asiatic  va- 
rieties. Khiva  and  Bokhara  supply  annually  for  home  and 
Eussian  demand  about  330,000,000  pounds,  the  export 
Khivan  cotton,  a  superior  native  variety,  going  by  camel 
caravan  to  Orenburg ;  considerable  cotton  is  also  grown  in 
the  Merv  oasis ;  the  Trans-Caucasia  cotton  fields  sometimes 
yield  over  200,000,000  pounds  a  year.  It  will  probably  be 
long  before  the  Eussian  mills  are  wholly  supplied  with 
Eussian-grown  cotton,  as  the  Turkestan  cotton  area,  while 
increasing,  will  be  limited  by  the  water  supply  for  irriga- 
tion. An  important  part  of  the  crop  will  always  be  required 
for  the  large  local  manufacture  of  cotton  fabrics. 

Eussian  Central  Asia  has  exterior  trade  relations  only 
with  Eussia,  Siberia,  Persia,  and,  to  a  small  extent,  with 
India  and  Afghanistan,  whose  merchants  bring  some  Brit- 
ish commodities  into  the  markets.  It  is  having  remarkable 
development  under  the  Eussian  policy  of  extending  railroad 
lines  and  irrigation  works,  which  are  greatly  enlarging  the 
areas  of  cultivation.  ^ 

*  The  Trans-Caspian  railroad  was  the  first  experiment  in  desert 
railroad  building.  Water  was  brought  in  conduits  from  the  mountains 
for  steam  purposes,  where  rivers  did  not  supply  the  need.  The  great 
diiSculty  was  to  fix  the  drifting  sands  so  that  thev  would  not  bury  the 
track.  The  saxaoul  shrub,  finally  planted  in  millions  along  the  track, 
now  keeps  the  sand  from  interfering  with  traffic,  except  in  some  places 
where  board  walls  are  erected  or  gangs  of  shovelers  are  stationed. 


i  g  s  -5  5  t  ■£ 


■5   -   S  -^   - 

<«-   ~     t-    c     '^ 
C   -S    «      ,    S 


"K    g-  C  S    o 


■5        «    2  •= 


S  E  -a  o 


"   «3   c  .5 


«   «   c    ~  2 


ii  fi 


g  -s    c 


S   =* 
S 


S  S  t^  b 


fci  s  '5   c   S       — 


S^   S  K 


b  5  =  =  ^ 


a;    r-'  ■"    ■" 


•eg'* 

C3      C     a; 

(2  "i 


-•  :=     c     O 


^   -C 


1  1 


5  ^ 
-   >   X  i 


5  iz; 


_     S     C    tZ       .   1=    ^     « 


i2  S 


5  "C  -^  -r; 

^-  _•  —  •« 


^ 

? 

CJ 

C3 

T' 

■*- 

t; 

«*- 

-£ 

g 

0 

O 

« 

^ 

>, 

■c 

>, 

CJ 

^ 

R 

c 

A 

J2 

■- 

S 

.5 

"3 

h 

u  ■■?    «   .= 


2  <  5  ■= 
S  g  s  * 


X   »;  ^   "  aj 


O     O   J3 


^«     t^^ 


'£  =  (?:«'-/- 


~    -^    =     C     g     c 


-  —     0/  t- 

,—  "  ~ 

c  c  c  ir  -c  "=• 

•£  >>  §  I,  i  S 

ti  .ti   .-  ?t  tc  r? 

£   "   g  S^  § 

S  -c  5  ^  §  S 

^  £  i  c  a  i 

C     X       .  O    'C  5 

»^  •-    a,  01    ■-  "^ 


•S     =3 


=  £  gl 


c"  S  ■^  "-   =   ^   =    5  ■? 


5  'g  E^ 


M.5    ^ 


.=  C    o    a 


tl  —  '5  S 


^  c  (a  S 

k  "S  r;:  .2   o  *- 


C     Cj     O     63     X 


CHAPTEE   XXXVIII 

INDIA  AND    CEYLON 

India  is  a  world  in  itself,  half  as  large  as  the  United 
States,  with  no  land  approach  except  through  difficult  moun- 
tain passes.  It  is  reached  easily  only  by  sea.  The  great 
walls  of  the  Himalayas  on  the  north,  the  Suleiman  moun- 
tains on  the  west,  and  the  mountains  of  Burma  on  the  east 
shut  it  off  from  the  rest  of  Asia ;  and  the  long  seacoast 
affords  but  few  good  harbors  for  large  vessels.  It  is  there- 
fore fortunate  that  railroads  connect  all  important  points 
of  the  interior  with  the  leading  ports,  so  that  products  have 
comparatively  easy  access  to  the  sea  routes. 

India  has  two  conspicuous  surface  features  :  (1)  a  great 
low  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  extending  east  and 
west  across  the  continental  portion ;  and  (2)  the  highlands 
of  Deccan,*  covering  the  peninsula.  Both  the  plain  and  the 
highlands,  as  a  rule,  have  sufficient  water  for  crops,  with 
fertile,  alluvial  soil  in  the  broad  river  valleys,  and  wide- 
spread areas  of  black  soil  in  the  highlands,  the  waste  of 
plutonic  rocks,  rich  in  plant  food.  The  density  of  popula- 
tion is  determined  not  by  temperature,  but  by  the  supply 
of  water  available  for  tillage  (Fig.  142).  The  irrigation 
system,  by  means  of  channels  filled  from  rivers,  reservoirs, 
and  wells,  is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  extending  over  a 
fourth  of  the  cultivated  area,  not  only  in  regions  of  defi- 
cient rainfall,  as  the  Indus  plain,  but  also  in  districts  where 
summer  rains  are  ample  but  winter  rains  are  deficient.     All 

*  Deccan  means  South  Land. 
396 


rNHABtTANTS  TO 
THE  SQUARE  MILE 

CUT]       "  to   60 
iQ^j     50  ..100 
100  ..  SCO 
20O  ..  400 
■HX)..  800 


0     \m   200    aoo   400 


LON  INDIA 

dJ   DENSITY  OF 
POPCLATION 


Fig.  142. — The  prevailing  winds  are  the  southwest  monsoon  in  summer  and  the  north- 
east monsoon  in  winter;  the  moist  southwest  monsoon  brings  an  enormous  quan- 
tity of  water  vapor  from  the  Indian  Ocean,  a  part  of  which,  condensed  on  the  up- 
per slopes  of  the  Western  Ghats,  gives  the  southwest  coast  abundant  rain  (Fig.  .3). 
Millions  of  people  inhabit  that  part  of  the  coast  line.  This  monsoon  usually 
carries  sufficient  rain  to  the  interior  highlands,  but  meeting  no  great  condensing 
medium  till  it  reaches  the  northern  mountains,  most  of  its  great  burden  of  water 
is  deposited  on  tlie  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  where  it  feeds  the  Ganges 
and  Indus,  and  makes  the  Ganges  valley  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  populous 
parts  of  the  world.  The  moisture-bearing  clouds  sweep  northward  across  north- 
west India,  parting  with  little  water  till  they  reach  the  mountains,  and  giving  the 
vast  low  region  comparatively  little  rainfall,  so  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  irriga- 
tion which  the  rivers  afford  the  Indus  ba.'in  would  be  as  sparsely  peopled  as  is 
the  Thar  or  Indian  Desert,  which  has  no  rivers  and  few  wells  available  for  irriga- 
tion. Observe  the  strip  of  more  densely  peopled  country  due  to  irrigation  in  the 
Indus  basin.  Sometimes  the  southwest  monsoon  does  not  continue  long  enough  to 
give  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan  sufficient  rain  ;  then  crops  fail  and  famine  ensues, 
the  famine  areas  occasionally  extending  as  far  north  as  Lahore.  The  drier  north- 
east monsoon,  crossing  the  wide  Bay  of  B(mgal,  collects  some  moisture  that  it 
deposits  on  the  Eastern  Ghats,  which,  with  the  irrigation  afforded  by  the  cast- 
flowing  rivers,  increases  the  capacity  of  the  east  coast  to  support  a  very  dense 
population. 

397 


398  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

parts  of  India  except  the  elevated  mountain  regions  are 
very  hot,  so  that  crops  grow  the  year  round.* 

Nine  tenths  of  the  inhabitants  of  India  are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Xo  other  part  of  the  world  depends  so  largely 
upon  the  fruits  of  the  soil ;  three  fourths  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, being  Brahmanists,  are  restricted  by  their  religious 
faith  to  an  almost  exclusively  vegetable  diet.  They  are 
thus  deprived  not  only  of  a  great  food  resource,  but  also  of 
a  large  part  of  the  profit  that  other  peoples  derive  from  the 
raising  of  domestic  animals  and  the  trade  in  them.f 

Foreign  commerce  is  restricted  by  the  poverty  of  the 
people.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  live  on  very  small  hold- 
ings. Farmers  are  always  poor  if,  as  in  India  and  China, 
the  land  is  so  minutely  subdivided  that  one  holding  scarcely 
suffices  for  a  bare  subsistence. J  Each  farmer  having  little 
to  sell,  can  buy  little.  For  this  reason,  India,  in  which 
one  sixth  of  the  human  race  is  gathered,  has  small  foreign 
commerce  considering  its  enormous  population.  The  total 
foreign  trade,  though  very  large,  is  less  than  $3  a  year  per 
capita^  while  Great  Britain  spends  eighteen  times  as  much 
pe7'  capita  for  its  chief  imports  alone  (p.  211).  In  view, 
however,  of  the  economic  condition  and  small  needs  of  the 
masses,  the  commerce  of  India  is  developing  very  rapidly.* 

*  Twenty  thousand  miles  of  large  and  small  distributaries  in  the 
Punjab  (northwest  India)  alone,  give  fertility  to  5,200,000  acres. 

f  They  use  small,  humped  oxen  (zebus)  or  black  buffaloes  to  till  the 
land,  every  farmer  also  having  a  cow  to  provide  milk.  The  value  of 
their  cattle  is  lessened  by  the  fact  that  they  place  no  value  on  beef. 
Many  thousands  perisli  in  time  of  famine  whose  lives  might  be  saved  if 
they  would  kill  their  cattle  for  food.  When  the  crops  fail  the  Hindus 
have  no  other  food  resource. 

X  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  laws  of  Sweden  forbid  the  subdi- 
vision of  farming  lands  into  jiarcels  that  will  not  give  comfortable  sup- 
port to  three  persons.  The  wages  paid  to  farm  laborers  in  India  is 
about  $2  a  month. 

*  The  intellectual  life  of  the  educated  and  professional  classes  is 
on  a  high  plane.     Native  capitalists  have  supplied  most  of  the  money 


INDIA 

Areas  of  Wheat.  Rice 
and  Millet  culture. 


•^ 


<i         Calicut 


.^^1_ 


■4^  4' 


Predominating  Wheat. 

"  Bice. 

"  Millet. 

fVheat  and  Millet. 
Rice  and  Millet. 


Fig.  143.— The  imI)or^ant  ports,  though  few  in  number,  are  well  distributed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  country.  Calcutta,  the  largest  city  in  the  British  Empire  except 
London,  is  the  center  of  business  in  Bengal.  Though  the  outlet  for  the  products 
of  this  rich  region,  particularly  jute,  indigo,  and  opium,  it  has  lost  its  commerciul 
pre-eminence,  Bombay  being  more  important  in  the  sliipi)ing  trade  since  the  Suez 
Canal  was  opened.  Calcutta  has  large  jute  and  paper  manufactures.  Bombay  is 
the  center  of  commercial  relations  with  Europe,  America,  and  the  far  East,  its 
Western  trade  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Oriental  traftic  going  by  way 
of  Singapore.  Its  harbor,  protected  by  islands,  being  the  best  in  India,  it  com- 
mands nearly  half  of  the  exterior  trade,  witli  wheat  and  cotton  as  its  largest 
exports.  Its  proximity  to  the  cotton  fields  makes  it  the  largest  center  of  cotton 
manufactures.  The  harbor  of  Madras  is  merely  a  roadstead,  where  ryclones  are 
dangerous  for  sliipping.  It  handles  nearly  all  the?  cotnnuTce  of  tlie  H()uthw<'st, 
though  Mafiulipatam  has  a  share  of  it.  Karachi  is  the  wheat  port  of  the  Punjab. 
Calicut,  which,  first  exporting  calico,  gave  its  name  to  that  fabric,  lias  consider- 
able trade  with  Western  countries. 

The  wild  elephant  is  now  found  in  India  only  in  the  forests  of  Mysore,  llydar- 
abad  is  the  capital  of  the  largest  native  state.  Pesliawur  is  at  the  entrance  of  the 
famous  Khaibar  Pass  leading  into  Afghanistan. 

?09 


400  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Rice  and  millet  are  almost  tlie  sole  food  of  the  larger  part 
of  the  population  (Fig.  143).*  As  rice  grows  on  hot  low- 
lands where  there  is  plenty  of  water  for  irrigation  (p.  65), 
its  largest  cultivation  is  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Ganges 
basin  along  the  rivers,  where  the  fields  may  be  flooded,  and 
on  the  coasts.  As  millet  thrives  in  the  drier  regions  it  is 
the  predominant  crop  on  the  uplands  of  Deccan  and  in 
parts  of  the  Indus  basin ;  thus  rice  is  the  chief  cereal  con- 
sumed along  the  coasts  and  in  the  irrigated  valleys,  while  a 
larger  proportion  of  millet  is  eaten  in  the  interior.  Millet 
is  not  exported,  and,  most  of  the  enormous  rice  crop  of 
India  being  required  at  home,  Great  Britain  draws  its  rice 
imports  chiefly  from  Burma,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal. 

Wheat  thrives  best  on  the  dr}^  plains  of  the  Punjab  and 
the  plateaus  of  the  central  provinces.  An  enormous  stim- 
ulus was  given  to  wheat  cultivation  by  the  completion  of 
the  Suez  Canal  (pp.  42,  43),  India  now  being  the  fourth 
largest  wheat  producer  (Fig.  36) ;  nor  could  India  have 
been  a  large  wheat  exporter  without  the  development  of 
the  railroads,  which  in  good  years  carry  so  much  wheat  to 
Bombay  from  the  central  provinces  as  to  exhaust  the  stor- 
age capacity.  The  wheat  of  the  central  region  is  shipped 
from  Bombay,  and  that  of  the  Punjab  is  collected  at  Mul- 
tan  and  shipped  from  Karachi.  Wheat  flour,  ground  at  Bom- 
bay and  other  centers,  is  also  a  large  export.  Wheat  and 
flour  exports,  of  course,  largely  fall  off  in  famine  years,  as 
in  1894-'95  and  189C-'97. 

Cotton,  raw  and  manufactured,  is  the  largest  export  (Fig. 
144).  Indian  cotton  had  its  greatest  development  during 
our  civil  war,  when  nearly  all  of  it  was  sent  to  Europe. 

required  by  industrial  development  and  commercial  expansion  since  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

*  Millet  is  one  of  the  grasses  yielding  a  very  nutritious  flour.  It  is 
grown  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  chiefly  for  hay. 


INDIA 

.  Areas  of  Tea,  Coffee,  Cotton 

and  Opium  culture. 

V*  SCALE,    1  ;   32,300,000 

.  MItES 

>^  I I I 1 I 

0         100      200       300      400       500 


I  0      E     S      E     R       T    ^S'  < 
Jaldarabad  p   ^/^ 


Narsinghpur 


angalur^ 


1 

1          /       ? 

J 

iXA^ 

^ 

«^ 

.sh/    ^ 

A 

Y 

0      F 

^  ^/Jlasulipatam 

&                BE 
j  Madras 

2V 

G 

A       L    0 

\  Mixed  Tea  &  Coffee. 
\  Tea. 
\  Coffee. 
]  Opium. 
i  Cotton.     . 


Fig.  144. — Some  thousands  of  Europeans  live  at  Bangaltir,  one  of  the  most  healthful 
places  in  south  India  and  a  center  of  the  cotton  trade.  Ballaii  is  one  of  the  chief 
military  posts  in  British  India.  Goa,  the  port  of  the  small  Portuguese  territory, 
is  dangerous  for  shipping  during  the  southwest  monsoon.  Nagpur  is  important 
in  the  cotton  trade.  Delhi  is  the  first  commercial  city  in  the  Upper  Ganges  basin, 
commanding  the  trade  between  the  Indus  and  Ganges  basins.  Agra,  second  only 
to  Delhi,  is  a  large  trading  point.  Lucknow,  the  fourth  city  in  population,  is  in 
the  center  of  a  fertile  region  called  the  "Garden  of  India,"  :ind  is  important  iu 
trade,  as  is  also  Faizabad.  Lahore  is  the  British  center  of  administration  for  all 
the  northwest  provinces. 

401 


26 


402  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

India  is  now  the  second  largest  grower  (Fig.  52),  extensive 
areas  throughout  the  western  two  thirds  of  the  country- 
being  devoted  to  the  crop.  The  black,  basaltic  soil  north 
of  Bombay  is  particularly  adapted  for  the  industry.  Ex- 
ports of  raw  cotton  are  mainly  sent  to  continental  Europe 
for  coarse  sheet  fabrics,  and  to  Japan.  Though  the  cheap 
Manchester  cotton  goods  are  imported  in  large  quantities, 
the  home  industry  is  steadily  growing,  India  having  the 
advantage  of  cheaper  raw  material  and  labor.  The  great 
center  of  production  is  Bombay,  which  has  3,500,000  spin- 
dles and  25,000  looms.  The  mills,  being  near  the  great 
Chinese  yarn  market,  send  large  quantities  of  cotton-yarn 
to  be  woven  in  the  homes  and  factories  of  that  country. 
Ahmedabad  owes  its  chief  importance  to  cotton  mills. 

Jute  grows  better  along  the  lower  courses  of  the  Ganges 
and  Brahmaputra,  which  flows  into  its  delta  from  the  north, 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Bengal  is,  therefore, 
the  chief  source  of  supply  (p.  103).  Nearly  the  whole  crop 
was  formerly  exported  to  Dundee,  but  the  growth  of  indus- 
tries has  so  stimulated  the  home  manufactures  that  jute 
gunny  bags  and  other  products  are  now  exported  to  the 
value  of  $20,000,000  a  year,  including  practically  all  the 
jute,  raw  and  manufactured. 

Silk  culture  is  a  considerable  industry  in  the  Punjab, 
Assam,  and  lower  Bengal.  The  fiber  is  woven  in  Bengal 
after  European  processes,  England  and  France  taking 
nearly  all  of  it.  The  famous  Cashmere  shawls,  woven  from 
the  wool  of  the  Cashmere  goat,  are  made  at  Srinagar  (Fig. 
143),  which  is  also  the  center  of  the  tussar  silk  trade,  the 
fiber  being  gathered  in  the  jungles  (p.  101).  Flax  raised 
only  for  seed  (linseed)  is  the  largest  element  in  the  exports 
of  oil  seeds.  The  poppy  grown  for  opium  (Fig.  144)  is 
a  large  source  of  revenue,  its  manufacture  being  a  Govern- 
ment monopoly,  and  Patna  the  great  center  of  production. 
Xine  tenths  of  it  is  exported  to  China,  opium  smoking 
being  a  prevailing  vice  in  that  empire.     Indigo  has  been 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  403 

a  great  industry  iu  the  Bengal  province  of  Behar,  but 
the  synthetic  production  of  this  dyestulf  in  Germany  is 
largely  replacing  vegetable  indigo.  Tobacco  is  grown  in 
the  river  valleys,  particularly  near  Ahmedabad,  Baroda, 
and  Bombay,  and  also  in  the  south,  the  export  of  cheroots 
being  large. 

Tea  is  one  of  the  largest  exports  (Fig.  144).  This  hardy 
plant  flourishes  wild  in  Assam,  where  there  are  now  tea 
plantations  containing  hundreds  to  thousands  of  acres. 
Machinery,  instead  of  hand  processes,  as  in  China,  is  used 
to  prepare  the  leaf  for  market.  India  supplies  two  thirds 
and  Ceylon  one  third  of  the  Indian  teas,  which  have  prac- 
tically supplanted  China  teas  in  the  markets  of  England 
and  the  British  colonies,  and  are  invading  the  United  States 
and  many  other  markets  that  have  depended  upon  China 
and  Japan.  Coifee  from  the  slopes  of  the  Western  Ghats 
and  Ceylon  is  also  exported. 

In  a  country  like  India,  densely  peopled  with  farmers, 
there  is  little  room  for  j)asturage  except  in  regions  too  dry 
for  agriculture  ;  for  this  reason  cattle  raising  is  most  promi. 
nent  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Indus  plain,  whence  cattle 
are  sent  in  large  numbers  to  supply  the  demand  for  draft 
animals.* 

Modern  manufactures  are  developing.  India  has  been 
famous  for  ages  for  its  native  textiles,  artistic  metal  work- 
ing, weapons,  and  other  articles.  Every  village  has  its 
craftsmen  of  all  sorts,  and  house  industries  are  found  every- 
where. But  many  modern  branches  of  manufactures  are 
now  being  introduced.  Besides  those  already  mentioned, 
tanneries,  woolen  mills,  shipyards,  iron  foundries,  and  brew- 
eries are  among  the  most  important.  The  greater  part  of 
the  beer  produced  is  purchased  by  the  Government  for  the 
soldiers. 

*  Considerable  coal  and  iron  ore  are  produced,  but  most  coal  and 

structural  iron  are  imported  from  Enf,dand.  Bombuy,  which  Ims  slii])- 
building  among  its  industries,  imports  all  its  coal. 


404  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  annual  value  of  the  export  trade  is  about  $360,000,000. 

This  is  in  good  crop  years,  when  the  wheat  and  cotton  ex- 
ports are  large.  Raw  cotton  sent  to  Europe  and  Japan, 
cotton  yarn  going  mostly  to  China,  and  cotton  textiles 
popular  in  East  Africa,  are  sold  to  the  amount  of  $60,000,- 
000.  Hides  and  skins,  oil  seeds,  and  tea,  each  amount  to 
about  $30,000,000,  raw  and  manufactured  jute  to  about 
$45,000,000,  and  opium  to  more  than  $25,000,000.  India 
being  poor  in  modern  metallurgy  and  general  manufac- 
tures, these  products  are  imported  to  the  value  of  over 
$160,000,000.  England  has  nearly  three  fourths  of  the  im- 
port trade  and  over  a  fourth  of  the  exports.  The  United 
States  has  a  very  small  part  in  the  import  trade,  but  buys 
from  India  jute  and  its  manufactures,  hides  and  skins, 
indigo  and  tea,  to  the  amount  of  $20,000,000  to  $35,000,000 
a  year. 

Nearly  half  the  rice  raised  in  Burma  is  exported.  Enor- 
mous quantities  are  jiroduced  on  the  low-lying  coasts  and 
in  flooded  valleys.  Teak  thrives  on  the  hillsides,  and  is  also 
an  important  export.  The  world's  chief  supply  of  rubies, 
among  the  most  valuable  of  all  gems,  comes  from  Burma. 
The  Ira  wad  i,  navigable  for  200  miles,  is  a  fine  highway  of 
commerce  through  the  heart  of  the  country  between  Man- 
dalay  and  Rangoon,  the  port  in  the  delta.  Burma  is  ad- 
ministered as  a  province  of  India,  in  whose  trade  statistics 
it  is  included. 

The  island  of  Ceylon  has  a  large  trade  in  tea  and  graphite. 
It  is  a  mountainous  island,  a  little  larger  than  AVest  Vir- 
ginia, producing  more  graphite  than  any  other  country, 
about  half  of  it  coming  to  the  United  States.  Its  great  tea 
plantations  contribute  nearly  half  of  the  total  exports, 
graphite  a  fifth,  copra  and  cinnamon  being  next  in  impor- 
tance.*    'No  tropical  plantation  colony  is  more  prosperous 

*  Cinnamon  is  the  aromatic  inner  baric  of  the  cinnamon  tree  grown 
in  Ceylon  and  Java,  dried  in  the  sun  and  used  as  a  spice. 


INDIA   AND   CEYLON  405 

than  Ceylon.  Xearly  500,000  immigrants  from  southern 
India  work  on  its  great  tea,  cacao,  cinchona,  coffee,  spice, 
and  cocoanut  palm  plantations.  The  island  imports  large 
quantities  of  rice,  as  the  low  flooded  lands  are  inadequate 
to  provide  the  amount  required.  Colombo,  which  com- 
mands nearly  the  entire  exterior  trade,  has  a  fine  artificial 
harbor. 

STATISTICS   FOR  INDIA   AND   CEYLON 

India 

Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

]891-'96.  1899. 

Imports 263.0  293.3 

Exports 347.5  874.1 

Population  (1891),  287,223,431. 

Silver  is  the  monetary  standard,  with  the  rupee  (worth 
23-J  cents  in  1896)  as  the  unit  of  coinage.  The  sum  of 
100,000  rupees  is  called  a  lac  of  rupees. 

Ceylon 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1891--95.  1899. 

Imports 33.8  37.3 

Exports 30.8  37.3 

Population  (1898),  3,008,215. 


CHAPTEE  XXXIX 

JAPAN 

The  plains  and  valleys  of  Japan  are  the  sources  of  its 
greatest  wealth.  It  is  a  very  mountainous  country,  parallel 
ranges  running  through  the  largest  islands,  with  many 
spurs,  some  of  them  extending  to  the  coasts.  Most  of  the 
mountains  are  magnificently  wooded  to  the  summits ;  the 
valleys  between  them  and  the  wide,  low  plains  along  the 
coasts,  or  intervening  between  the  ranges  in  the  interior, 
are  highly  cultivated  to  the  last  acre.  These  valleys  and 
plains  fix  the  site  of  all  the  important  towns,  for  the  low- 
lands teem  with  industry,  and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants 
live  on  them.*  Surrounded  by  sea,  whose  breezes  are  laden 
with  moisture,  Japan  has  abundant  rainfall  and  a  more 
equable  climate  than  the  neighboring  mainland ;  but  the 
icy  winds  of  the  winter  monsoon  bring  plenty  of  snow, 
which  naturally  lies  deepest  and  longest  on  the  west  side 
of  the  mountains.  The  high  winter  winds  make  naviga- 
tion dangerous  along  the  west  coast ;  the  typhoons  of  the 
summer  monsoon  sometimes  inflict  much  damage  on  the 
east  coast ;  thus  both  coasts  have  periods  of  difficult  navi- 
gation. 

*  Japan  is  similar  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  size  and  popu- 
lation. Fig.  145  shows  the  four  largest  islands  which  are  the  home  of 
nearly  all  the  inhabitants.  Hondo  is  the  largest,  and,  with  the  two 
southern  islands,  the  most  important  part  of  the  empire.  Yezo  is  cold- 
est in  winter,  thinly  populated,  and  cultivated  only  along  the  coast. 
There  art  about  500  other  islands  of  a  little  importance,  besides  hun- 
dreds of  islets.  Japan  is  one  of  the  great  earthquake  areas,  appalling 
loss  of  life  and  property  resulting  from  the  severest  shocks. 
406 


JAPAN 


407 


Silk,  tea,  and  rice  are  the  staples 
of  agricultural  exports.  The  mul- 
berry thrives  in  Hondo,  to  which 
silk  culture  is  confined.  Three 
fifths  of  the  raw  silk  comes  from 
the  central  area  west  of  Tokio,.and 
one  fifth  from  the  northern  area, 
which  extends  nearly  to  tlie  north 
coast  of  the  island 
These  districts  prodi 
the  best  quality,  th( 
strong,  firm  fiber  be- 


FiG.  145.— Twenty-two  new  ports  were  opened  to  foreign  commerce  in  1899.  Yoko- 
hiinia,  which  has  a  spacious  harbor,  transacts  more  than  half  the  external  trade 
of  the  country.  It  is  favored  by  the  pro.xiniity  of  the  greatest  silk-growing  dis- 
trict and  of  Tokio,  the  capital  and  most  populous  city  in  the  empire,  which  has 
no  harbor.  Kobe  is  the  second  port  in  importance,  one  of  the  centers  of  the  tea 
trade,  and  other  commerce  of  central  Japan.  Near  it  are  Osaka,  the  largest  man- 
■  ufacturing  city  of  Japan,  excelling  chiefly  in  cotton  spinning,  and  the  ancient 
city  of  Hiogo.  Kioto,  noted  for  its  distinetive  .Japanese  industries,  sends  a  great 
deal  of  tea  and  raw  silk  to  Kobe  for  Hhi|)ment.  Nagasaki,  with  its  shipyards,  has 
the  advantage  of  a  neighboring  coal  field.  The  map  shows  a  number  of  the  new 
open  ports  on  the  west  coast.  Niigata  is  at  the  convergence  of  several  roads  to 
the  sea  and  on  a  navigabh?  river.  The  towns  indicated  in  the  northern  silk  area 
are  old  feudal  cities,  converted  by  railroads  into  progressive  centers.  Aomori,  on 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  bays  in  the  world,  is  a  fishing  center,  and  forwards 
goods  to  a   d  from  Yezo. 


408  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRA  ""HY 

ing  particularly  desired  by  the  manufacturing  countries  for 
ribbons  and  laces.  The  southern  district,  west  of  Kobe, 
supplies  one  fifth  of  the  total  output,  which  is  second  in 
quantity  only  to  that  of  China  (Fig,  55).*  About  half  the 
raw  silk  is  retained  for  the  manufacture  of  the  character- 
istic silk  fabrics  worn  in  the  country  and  exported  in  large 
quantities. 

Tea  gardens  and  plantations  are  scattered  over  large 
areas  in  the  three  southern  islands,  and  Kiusiu  is  almost 
covered  Avith  them  (Fig.  145).  A  peculiarity  of  Japanese 
agriculture  is  the  large  amount  of  fish  caught  oS  the 
coasts,  that  is  used  to  enrich  the  soil ;  thus,  thousands  of 
tons  of  dried  fish  are  packed  around  the  roots  of  the  tea- 
plant.  Green  tea  is  the  main  product,  the  finest  qualities 
being  packed  in  jars  to  retain  the  aroma.  All  the  planta- 
tions are  at  a  considerable  distance  from  cities  and  villages, 
as  smoke  and  other  impurities  in  the  air  are  believed  to  im- 
pair the  delicacy  of  the  tea.  Three  fourths  of  the  exports 
are  sent  to  the  United  States. 

Eice  is  grown  everywhere  in  the  lowlands,  the  rice 
plains  of  the  west  coast  being  rather  more  extensive,  and 
more  than  half  the  crop  coming  from  that  side  of  the 
islands.  Eice  is  the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants ;  as 
Japanese  rice  is  preferred  in  some  markets  to  any  other,  a 
great  deal  is  exported,  and  cheaper  rice  from  other  Asiatic 
countries  is  imported  to  meet  the  home  demand.  In  some 
years  the  exports  exceed  the  imports.  Wheat  and  millet 
are  also  imported  crops  and  large  food  resources. 

*  When  diseases  half  ruined  European  silkworm  culture  (1863-'69), 
Japan  was  the  principal  source  from  which  healthy  eggs  were  obtained. 
As  this  export  absorbed  the  best  Japanese  cocoons,  silk  culture  in 
Hondo  greatly  declined.  Since  1870,  however,  the  production  of  raw 
silk  has  steadily  developed,  and  now  exceeds  16,000.000  pounds  a  year. 
Yokohama  is  the  great  export  market,  about  half  the  production  being 
shipped  from  that  port  to  Europe  and  the  United  States,  the  sales 
abroad  of  raw  silk  and  its  manufactures  being  n  little  less  than  half 
the  total  exports  of  the  empire. 


f 


f^"li 


JAPAN  409 

Cotton  is  grown  in  the  south,  but  supplies  only  a  small 
part  of  the  fiber  required  in  the  growing  cotton  industries. 
The  native  staple  is  less  than  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 
length,  which  is  one  reason  why  comparatively  little  atten- 
tion is  given  to  its  culture.  Japan  makes  most  of  its  cotton 
fabrics,  the  imports  of  raw  cotton  being  worth  nearly  four 
times  as  much  as  the  cotton  cloth  imported.  India  sup- 
plies half  the  raw  cotton,  the  United  States  one  fourth, 
and  other  Asiatic  countrfjL  chiefly  China,  send  the  re- 
mainder. Considerable  Texas  cotton  is  now  shipped  from 
San  Diego  to  Japan.  The  spinning  wheel  has  been  almost 
wholly  displaced,  since  1880,  by  spinning  mills  using  ma- 
chinery. Yarn  is  the  great  product  of  the  factories,  while 
hand  looms  in  the  homes  of  thousands  of  artisans  still  turn 
most  of  the  yarns  into  cloth.  The  Japanese  peasantry  thus 
make  most  of  their  wearing  apparel  from  the  yarns  pro- 
duced in  the  home  mills.  The  manufacture  of  woolen 
cloths,  from  wool  imported  mainly  from  Australia  and 
China,  is  a  new  industry  employing  several  factories. 

Animal  raising  has  a  subordinate  place.  This  is  the  case 
in  all  countries  where  rice-growing  is  a  leading  industry. 
There  are  no  donkeys,  sheep,  goats,  or  geese  in  Japan. 
Cattle  are  raised  for  the  plow  and  carrying  purposes,  but  not 
for  meat ;  milk,  butter,  and  cheese  have  no  part  in  commerce. 
A  small  breed  of  horses  from  Korea  is  raised  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  Japanese  fisheries  are  among  the  most  valuable 
in  the  world  (p.  92).  The  Japanese  consume,  and  export 
to  China  and  other  countries,  large  quantities  of  fish,  car- 
rying on  the  industry  both  along  their  own  coasts  and  on 
the  neighboring  shores  of  Asia,  particularly  near  Korea. 

The  extensive  forests  supply  most  of  the  timber  re- 
quired, including  kiyaki,  a  very  hard  wood  used  for  sliip 
frames,  and  hinoki  cypress,  used  in  better-class  buildings, 
furniture,  and  lacquer  ware.  Considerable  Oregon  pine 
and  teak  from  India  are  im])ort('(l.  Tlie  sap  of  the  laecjuer 
tree  (Fig.  14G)  yields  a  varnish  that  is  applied  to  wooden  or 


410 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


metal  articles.  It  is  so  hard  that  it  is  difficult  to  scratch  it, 
and  its  polish  is  the  most  perfect  known.  Lacquer  ware  is 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  products,  and  is  a  large  export. 


Another  tree  yields  vegetable  wax,  used  in  candlemaking 
and  in  coating  paper  garments  to  be  worn  in  wet  weather. 
It  is  important  both  in  the  domestic  and  foreign  trade.* 

*  Japan  wax  should  not  be  confounded  with  China  wax,  which  is      i 
an  insect  product.  1 


JAPAN  411 

The  camphor  tree  is  cultivated  in  south  Japan,  that  coun- 
try, and  particularly  the  island  Formosa  being  the  largest 
sources  of  camphor.* 

Japan  is  poor  in  minerals  (Fig.  145).  Coal  is  mined 
principally  in  Yezo  and  Kiusiu,  and  considerable  is  ex- 
ported to  Shanghai.  The  largest  copper  mines  in  Asia  are 
at  Ashio,  copper  being  the  only  metal  exported.  As  the 
iron  produced  falls  far  short  of  manufacturing  needs,  iron 
and  steel  and  their  products,  including  some  pig  iron  from 
China,  are  large  imports.  Japan  abounds  with  kaolin  of 
superior  quality,  of  which  the  famous  earthen  and  porcelain 
wares  are  made,  and  which  have  a  wide  sale  in  foreign  lands. 

The  Japanese  desire  to  make  their  own  commodities. 
Readily  assimilating  Western  ideas  and  processes,  .they 
have  begun  the  manufacture  of  many  European  and  Amer- 
ican articles  which  were  not  even  known  in  their  country 
forty  years  ago.f  Shipbuilding  at  Xagasaki  is  one  of  the 
most  notable  industries ;  small  ocean  vessels  are  built  in 
well-equipped  yards ;  there  are  facilities  for  the  docking 
and  repair  of  all  classes  of  ships,  from  ironclad  cruisers  to 
coasting  vessels.  The  growth  of  industrial  pursuits  has  to 
some  extent  increased  the  exports  and  decreased  the  im- 
ports of  manufactured  articles.  Japan,  however,  can  not 
seriously  compete  with  the  West  for  the  control  of  the 
Oriental  markets  so  long  as  its  manufactured  products  do 
not  compare  favorably  with  those  made   in  Europe  and 

*  The  camphor  tree,  related  to  the  sassafras  of  the  United  States, 
is  widely  distributed.  Camphor  gum  is  used  for  liniments  and  other 
medical  purposes;  camphor  oil  is  an  ingredient  in  varnishes,  oils,  and 
paints.  As  the  tree  is  cut  down  to  obtain  the  crude  gum,  .Japanese  law 
requires  that  a  tree  be  set  out  for  every  one  felled. 

f  Besides  textiles,  they  are  making  matches,  saddlery,  glassware, 
umbrellas,  brushes,  boots  and  shoes,  mathematical  and  surgical  imple- 
ments, patent  medicines,  clocks  and  watches,  and  other  articles,  many 
of  which  are  as  yet  of  inferior  quality.  So  much  labor  has  been 
diverted  from  agriculture  to  other  industries,  that  food  costs  more,  as 
much  must  be  imported  ;  wages  have  consequently  increased. 


412  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

America.  Labor  is  cheap,  but,  considering  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  its  product,  it  is  not  cheaper  than  in  America 
or  Europe  (p.  34).  * 

The  foreign  trade  has  increased  fivefold  in  twenty  years. 
France  and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  buyers  of  raw 
silk,  the  leading  export.  The  raw  silk  and  tea  sent  to  the 
United  States  make  this  country  the  chief  customer  of 
Japan.  China  is  the  largest  purchaser  of  sea  food  and 
matches.  Other  Asiatic  countries  buy  large  quantities  of 
Japan's  cotton  goods.  Most  of  the  imported  textiles, 
machinery,  and  iron  goods  come  from  Great  Britain  and 
Germany.  The  United  States  leads  in  sales  of  kerosene, 
sole  leather,  telephones,  tobacco  leaf,  lumber,  and  some 
other  articles.  Great  Britain  buys  from  Japan  only  one 
fifth  as  much  as  the  United  States  purchases,  but  her  sales 
to  that  country  considerably  exceed  those  of  the  United 
States  and  India,  her  nearest  competitors.! 

*  Inland  transportation  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  building 
of  over  3,000  miles  of  railroads;  the  telegraph  and  postal  services 
extend  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  Japanese  own  a  large  part  of 
the  merchant  marine  connecting  their  country  with  other  lands,  having 
their  own  regular  steamship  lines  to  our  Pacific  coast,  Australia,  Shang- 
hai, Korea,  Vladivostok,  and  Bombay.  The  Government  endeavors  to 
stimulate  marine  enterprise  by  a  system  of  subsidies  and  bounties  to 
steamship  lines.  An  extensive  system  of  banking,  regulated  by  the 
Government,  has  been  developed  throughout  the  country. 

f  The  island  of  Formosa  became  a  Japanese  possession  after  the  war 
with  China  (1894-95).  The  mountains  of  the  east  side,  inhabited  by- 
savage  aborigines,  are  still  only  partly  explored.  The  alluvial  and  well- 
watered  plains  of  the  west  are  cultivated  by  Chinese  immigrants,  who 
raise  large  crops  of  tea,  rice,  and  sugar  cane.  Nearly  all  of  the  For- 
mosa tea  (Oolong  and  other  varieties),  regarded  by  many  as  the  finest 
exported,  is  sent  to  the  United  States.  Formosa,  with  a  product  of 
over  6,000,000  pounds  of  camphor  a  year,  controls  the  world's  trade  in 
that  commodity.  The  industry  is  now  a  monopoly  of  the  Japanese 
Government,  which  maintains  a  large  number  of  guards  in  the  camphor 
forests  to  protect  workmen  from  savage  foes.  Formosa  lacks  good  har- 
bor accommodations,  Tamsiii  and  Kelung,  the  northern  ports,  where 


JAPAN  413 


STATISTICS   FOR  JAPAN 
Average  Axnual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-^85.  1891-95.  1899. 

Imports 21.3  47  109.7 

Exports 26.0  51  107.0 

Value  of  Leading  Imports,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 

Raw  cotton.      Sugar.     Cotton  textiles.    Kerosene.    Oil  cake.    Machinery.      Rice. 
31.0  8.7  6.2  4.0  3.4  2.6  3.0 

Value  of  Leading  Exports,  1899  (in  Million  Dollars) 


Cotton  Silk  r^^fr^^        tj,„„  rr„„         at„»„v,„„        tvt„»..         Straw 

braid. 


Coffee.      Rice.        Tea.      JIatches.     Mats. 
31.1        14.2        11.6        5.7        5.1        4.2  3.0         1.9         1.4 


Population  (1898),  46,026,406. 

Gold  and  silver  are  the  monetary  standards,  with  the 
silver  yen  (value  about  53  cents)  as  the  unit  of  coinage. 
English  and  metric  measures  are  used  in  foreign  trade. 

most  of  the  commerce  is  centered,  being  inferior.     Takao,  in  the  south- 
west, is  a  better  harbor.     Anping  also  has  considerable  trade. 


CHAPTEE   XL 

THE    CHINESE    EMPIRE 

China  is  the  largest  agricultural  nation.  All  tillable 
lands  are  cultivated  like  gardens,  the  fruitful  soil  yielding 
abundant  harvests  ;  but  China  is  not  able  to  sell  food  to 
other  nations,  and  is  compelled  to  buy  some  food  from  them. 
It  is  forbidden  by  law  to  export  rice  from  the  empire,  be- 
cause sometimes  it  can  not  grow  all  the  rice  it  needs.  The 
natural  riches  are  extraordinarily  great,  and  yet  the  Chinese 
people,  excelled  by  none  in  sobriety  and  tireless  industry, 
are  very  poor.  They  are  too  closely  crowded  together  on 
the  lands  they  till.  Though  China  proper  is  only  half  as 
large  as  the  United  States,  it  contains  nearly  as  many  peo- 
ple as  the  whole  of  Europe.  If  the  whole  population  of  the 
United  States  and  40,000,000  more  were  crowded  into  the 
state  of  Texas  the  density  of  population  would  be  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  low  plains  of  China,  where  a  third  of 
the  Chinese  live.  The  struggle  for  existence  is  intense  in 
a  country  so  overcrowded.* 

The  surface  and  climate  are  favorable  to  large  production. 
An  alluvial  and  highly  fertile  plain  extends  between  the 
Pekin  and  the  Yangtse-kiang  in  the  east.f     A  longer  but 

*  The  Blackburn  Report  to  the  British  Government  says :  "  The 
dreadful  poverty  of  the  masses  is  due  to  rapid  increase  of  population 
wherevQr  a  district  has  been  spared  rebellion  and  famine  for  a  few  tens 
of  years."  Large  numbers  of  Chinese  emigrate  to  the  Malay  Peninsula 
and  other  Asiatic  lands  and  have  even  crossed  the  ocean  to  earn  a  bet- 
ter living. 

f  The  ELoang  River,  "  China's  Sorrow,"  crosses  this  plain.  Millions 
414 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  415 

narrower  plain  extends  up  the  valley  of  the  Yangtse  and 
its  tributary  the  Han  far  across  central  China.  Nearly  all 
the  rest  of  China,  two  thirds  of  the  Avhole,  is  mountainous, 
with  great  agricultural  development  in  the  valleys  and  even 
on  the  mountain  slopes,  which  are  terraced  and  tilled,  par- 
ticularly north  of  the  Yangtse  River,  to  a  height  of  8,000 
feet<_Being  in  the  monsoon  region,  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  greatest  of  land  masses,  it  has  in  summer  the  warm, 
moist  winds  from  the  sea  and  in  winter  the  icy  winds  from 
the  northern  plains ;  in  other  words,  the  summer  is  very 
warm  with  abundant  rainfall,  and  the  winter  is  very  cold, 
which  conduces  to  the  energy  of  the  people.  The  climate 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States ;  many  of  the  deciduous  trees  and  other  forms  of 
vegetation  are  identical  in  the  two  countries.  The  combi- 
nation of  monsoon  rains  with  summer  heat  makes  it  prac- 
ticable, however,  to  cultivate  rice  and  other  products  of  hot 
countries  in  north  China,  as  well  as  wheat  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  temperate  zone. 

Raw  silk  is  the  greatest  export  commodity  (Fig.  147). 
Nearly  all  the  i3rovinces  produce  raw  silk,  but  nine  tenths 
of  the  output  comes  from  the  low  plains  of  the  lower 
Yangtse,  the  region  west  of  Canton,  and  the  far  upper 
Yangtse.  China  is  far  the  largest  producer  of  silk  (Fig. 
55).  Seven  crops  of  cocoons  are  gathered  between  March 
and  October,  the  mulberry  plantations  being  tilled  with  the 
greatest  care  to  produce  enough  leaves  for  the  voracious 
worms.  An  important  amount  of  wild  silk  (tussar,  p.  101) 
is  also  collected,  especially  in  the  north,  where  the  forests, 
on  whose  foliage  the  wild  caterpillars  feed,  are  most  exten- 
sive. About  half  the  raw  silk  is  sent  to  Shanghai  and  Can- 
ton to  be  shipped  to  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Many 
of  the  Chinese  silk  fabrics  sold  in  Oriental  and,  to  some 

of  persons  have  been  drowned  in  the  terrible  floods  with  which  the 
Hoang  sometimes  covers  portions  of  the  plain. 


416 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


extent,  in  "Western  markets  are  made  on  hand  looms  in  the 
homes  of  the  operatives,  Western  machinery  being  employed 


O  O    )^"     L 


Commodities  namtd  are  most 
c/uxracteri«tie  producta  of 
reffums  indicated 

Rice 

Silk 

Maize 

Tea 

\\\\-^^^  Pasture 


East  110 


Fig.  147. 


in  these  manufactures  only  near    Shanghai  and  Canton. 
The  prosperous  classes  in  China  wear  a  great  deal  of  silk, 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  417 

SO  that  about  half  the  enormous  crop  is  required  for  home 
consumption.  Xanking  and  Hang-chau  are  specially  promi- 
nent in  silk  weaving.  Silk,  raw  and  manufactured,  is  about 
half  of  the  total  exports. 

Tea  is  second  among  the  exports.  The  quantity  sent 
abroad  is  worth  about  half  as  much  as  the  silk  exports. 
Eussia  is  the  largest  purchaser,  much  of  it  being  pressed 
into  tablets  and  sent  by  camel  caravans  to  Siberia,  where  it 
is  forwarded  to  the  Russian  consumers.  In  January,  1899, 
over  19,000  sledges  loaded  with  tea  passed  west  through 
Tomsk.  Most  of  the  tablet  tea  is  superior  in  quality,  there 
being,  however,  a  large  market  for  inferior  teas,  which  are 
compressed  into  bricks  (brick  tea)  for  land  carriage  and 
sent  to  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  Russia.  Those  teas  which  the 
Chinese  regard  as  choicest  are  in  limited  supply,  and  sel- 
dom reach  the  foreign  trade.* 

Silk  and  tea  were  the  great  instrumentalities  in  opening 
the  doors  of  China  to  foreign  trade.  Silk  fabrics  were  car- 
ried overland  from  China  ages  ago  to  the  markets  of  East- 
ern Turkestan,  merchants  from  the  Mediterranean  sending 
their  agents  to  Central  Asia  to  buy  the  precious  products. 
Two  trade  routes  were  opened  to  supply  India  with  silks, 
one  overland  from  western  China  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges,  and  the  other  southward  from  Bokhara  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus;  thus  the  Indian  market  became  more 
valuable  to  the  West,  because  China's  silks  might  be  bought 
there ;  in  the  course  of  time  the  Chinese  and  the  Western 

*  The  Chinese  tea  trade  has  greatly  declined  on  account  of  the 
competition  of  the  teas  of  India  and  Ceylon.  Tea-i,n-owing  in  China  is 
a  garden  culture,  while  the  tea  plantations  of  India  and  Ceylon  arc 
sometimes  thousands  of  acres  in  extent.  These  large  jilantations  per- 
mit the  use  of  machinery  in  tea-curing,  which  in  China  is  mainly  a 
hand  industry.  Green  teas  are  the  larger  part  of  China's  tea  exports, 
as  they  are  preferred  in  Russia  and  the  United  States,  the  best  custom- 
ers for  them.  Black  teas  are  the  larger  |)art  of  the  exports  from  India 
and  Ceylon,  going  mainly  to  Gi'cat  Britain  and  the  British  colonics. 
27 


418  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

merchants  met  and  began  to  trade  without  the  aid  of  mid- 
dlemen. The  tea  trade,  later,  had  an  even  more  rapid 
and  powerful  effect  in  bringing  China  into  commercial  re- 
lations with  the  Occident.  The  growing  demand  for  tea 
in  the  West  gradually  encouraged  the  Chinese  to  raise  more 
tea ;  then  they  began  to  consume  one  and  another  foreign 
article  which  they  took  in  exchange  for  their  tea ;  thus  the 
way  was  opened  for  the  advent  of  the  missionary  and  the 
Western  trader  on  the  soil  of  China. 

Cotton  is  very  important  in  the  domestic  and  import 
trade.  China  produces  one  of  the  largest  crops  and  con- 
sumes nearly  all  of  it.  The  beautiful  white  fiber  is  no 
longer  than  the  shortest  American  upland,  which  impairs 
its  value  in  foreign  markets,  though  Japan  buys  some  of  it. 
There  are  no  cotton  plantations,  most  of  the  fiber  being 
raised  on  little  patches  of  ground  by  every  farmer  in  the 
cotton  areas,  which  are  most  extensive  along  the  lower 
Yangtse  (Fig.  147).  They  sell  very  little  of  their  crop,  the 
women  of  their  families  spinning  and  weaving  it,  and  selling 
the  surplus  cloth  to  their  neighbors.*  As  the  masses  wear 
nothing  but  cotton  and  China  grass  (p.  103)  even  in  the  cold- 
est Avinter  weather,  enormous  quantities  of  yarn  and  cloth 
must  be  imported.  The  yarns  purchased  from  Japan,  India, 
and  England  are  sold  far  and  wide  among  the  women  who 
make  cloth  in  their  homes,  as  well  as  to  the  cotton  factories 
of  Shanghai  and  Wuchang,  where  steam  spinneries  also 
add  to  the  yarn  supply.  Cotton  cloths  are  by  far  thQ 
largest  imports,  the  United  States  having  the  lion's  share 
of  the  north  China  trade  through  Shanghai,  while  England 
supplies  most  of  the  south  China  demand  through  Hong- 
kong. 

The  woodlands  have  largely  disappeared.  This  is  to  be 
expected  in  any  country  where  every  acre  that  will  produce 
food  is  needed  for  that  purpose.     East  China  is  nearly  de- 

*  The  oil  extracted  from  the  seed  is  used  as  an  illuminant. 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  419 

nuded,  the  best  timber  being  in  the  north  and  west.  A 
number  of  forest  growths  are  of  commercial  importance; 
most  of  all  the  bamboo,  thriving  in  south  China  as  well  as 
in  all  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  from  whose  light,  hard 
stem  houses  and  bridges  are  built,  and  furniture,  weapons, 
and  many  other  articles  are  made ;  cassia,  a  coarse  variety 
of  cinnamon ;  the  wax  tree,  a  variety  of  oak  whose  wax, 
deposited  by  an  insect,  serves  all  the  purposes  of  beeswax, 
the  product  being  worth  over  $1,000,000  a  year ;  and  the 
tallow  tree,  whose  seeds  are  covered  with  a  greasy  sub- 
stance, used  in  making  candles.  Our  Pacific  coast  lumber 
is  a  valued  import  in  east  China. 

Animal  raising  is  not  very  important.  This  is  the  case 
in  all  Buddhistic  countries ;  the  densely  peopled  parts  of 
China,  moreover,  have  little  land  to  spare  for  pasturage. 
All  the  domestic  animals  are  raised,  including  the  camel, 
the  freight  carrier  in  Mongolia  and  Manchuria.  Poultry 
are  very  numerous,  supplying,  with  hogs  and  fisli,  most 
of  the  animal  food.  Eggs  are  a  large  export  to  Japan. 
Chinese  fisheries  are  among  the  leading  industries  and  give 
employment  to  several  million  persons,  the  sea  and  river 
fisheries  being  of  enormous  value.  Fisli  hatcheries,  com- 
paratively new  "in  the  West,  have  been  maintained  in  China 
for  centuries. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  very  great  (Fig.  147).  The  coal 
fields  are  supposed  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  the  world  ; 
those  of  the  north  (Shansi)  are  believed  to  exceed  the  coal 
districts  of  Pennsylvania  in  area.  Though  iron  ores  are 
closely  associated  with  the  coal,  this  rich  district  and  many 
other  mining  regions  will  be  undeveloped  until  railroads 
reach  them.  The  cost  of  carriage  from  the  coal  mines 
of  Ilunan  makes  it  impracticable  to  sell  coal  at  a  profit 
if  it  must  be  carried  more  than  twenty  miles  to  the  river 
boats  that  distribute  it  to  towns  on  the  Yangtse.  The 
country  a])ounds  with  superior  cliiua  clays,  which  are  the 
basis  of  the  renowned  porcelain  industries.     Yet  with  all 


420  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

this  wealth  mining  is  so  little  developed  that  China  de- 
pends upon  imports  for  most  of  its  metals. 

The  industrial  development  is  very  important.  Judged 
by  Western  standards,  the  products  are  inferior,  but  on  the 
whole  they  are  honestly  made,  for  hard  service,  and  are  the 
best  manufactures  of  the  Orient.*  The  Chinese  employ 
little  or  no  machinery  and  do  not  understand  the  advan- 
tages of  division  of  labor  (pp.  2,  3) ;  each  product  is  the 
work  of  a  single  artisan.  Manual  skill  and  lamentably 
cheap  labor  (ten  to  twenty  cents  a  day)  supply,  to  some 
extent,  the  advantages  that  machinery  would  give.  The 
textiles  woven  in  winter  by  the  country  people  are  most 
important,  after  which  come  metal,  glass,  china  ware,  bas- 
ket plaiting,  and  other  industries.  The  Chinese  excel  in 
working  copper  and  bronze,  their  wares  and  art  objects 
in  these  metals  being  widely  esteemed ;  ivory,  wood,  and 
stone  carvings,  also  justly  renowned,  have  Canton  as  the 
center  of  production  and  trade.  The  iron  works  erected 
at  Hankau  on  the  Yangtse  and  at  neighboring  Hanyan 
turn  out  rifles  and  small  cannon,  but  the  products  are 
inferior  and  costly,  though  the  works,  equipped  with  mod- 
ern machinery,  are  under  expert  foreign  superintendence. 
The  manufactures  most  imjjortant  in  exports  are  straw 
braid,  which  competes  in  Europe  with  Swiss  and  other 
braid,  paper,  fireworks,f  matting,  china  and  stone  goods, 
fans,  and  bamboo  articles. 

The  cost  of  transportation  largely  affects  foreign  trade. 
The  most  important  articles  of  export  have  high  value  in 

*  The  Japanese  excel  in  beauty  of  finish  and  the  attractive  qualities 
of  their  wares,  which,  however,  are  not  so  lasting,  as  a  rule,  as  those  of 
the  Chinese.  The  Japanese  are  superior  in  lacquer,  enamel,  and  some 
other  art  works. 

f  Most  firecrackers  are  made  in  the  honies  of  the  persons  who  sell   . 
them.     The  cheapest  straw  paper  and  powder  are  used,  with   better   i 
paper  for  the  wrappers.     After  forming  the  paper  cylinders  they  are 
tied  in  bunches  of  200  or  300,  clay  being  spread  over  one  end  and 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  421 

proportion  to  weight  and  bulk.  They  originate  chiefly 
near  the  sea  or  the  Yangtsc  and  its  largest  tributaries* 
(Fig.  148).  The  average  cost  of  transportation  in  most  of 
China  is  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  in  countries  pro- 
vided with  railroads. 

Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  control  more  than  half  of 
the  trade.  The  British  trade,  however,  is  declining,  owing 
largely  to  the  decreasing  purchases  of  Chinese  tea  and  the 
growing  sales  of  United  States  cotton  goods  in  north  China. 
Cotton  cloth,  opium,  petroleum,  hardware,  and  sugar  are 
the  largest  imports  ;  raw  and  manufactured  silk,  tea,  hides, 
paper,  and  china  ware  are  the  most  important  exports.  Im- 
ports from  the  United  States  are  mainly  cotton  goods, 
petroleum,  flour,  and  lumber,  the  exports  being  tea,  raw 
silk,  and  a  few  other  articles. 

Manchuria  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  empire  out- 
forced  inside  each  cracker  with  a  punch.  The  powder  is  then  poured 
in  at  the  other  end,  the  fuse,  Japanese  paper  made  of  the  inner  lining 
of  the  bamboo,  is  inserted,  and  the  edge  of  the  paper  is  turned  in  with 
an  awl.  Forty  persons,  each  earning  five  to  seven  cents  a  day.  can 
make  100.000  crackers  a  day.  The  exports,  nearly  $2,000,000  a  year, 
come  mostly  to  this  country.  They  are  only  a  small  part  of  the  output, 
as  firecrackers  are  mainly  consumed  at  home. 

*  The  great  highways  are  the  Yangtse  River,  navigable  for  large 
steamboats  to  Ichang,  about  1,000  miles,  and  for  smaller  vessels  through 
difficult  rapids  to  Chung-king;  and  the  Grand  Canal  from  Hang-chau 
to  Tientsin.  Many  of  the  earlier  canals  are  now  in  ruins;  the  cost  of 
transportation  on  many  waterways  is  increased  by  rapids,  as  on  the 
Han  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Yangtse  and  on  tlic  West  (Si-kiang)  of 
Canton.  The  great  Hoang  ho  is  too  rapid  and  shallow  to  be  utilized 
except  in  stretches;  still,  V:>y  means  of  small  boats,  fiatboats,  pole-men, 
and  tow-men.  an  enormous  amount  of  freight  is  moved  on  the  water- 
ways (p.  39).  The  railroad  mileage  is  still  very  small ;  though  many 
concessions  to  build  railroads  have  been  granted,  their  development  is 
in  the  future.  The  very  poor  land  routes  consist  of  bidlock-cart  roads, 
paths  on  which  wheelbarrows  are  trundled,  or  human  porters  or  pack 
animals  are  employed.  In  west  China  the  cost  of  freight  haulage  is 
about  25  cents  a  ton  per  mile  (compare  p.  149). 


Fig.  148. — Foreign  vessels  are  admitted  to  thirty-fonr  treaty  ports  on  the  coasts  and 
rivers,  where  foreigners  are  permitted  to  engage  in  business.  The  treaty  ports 
having  the  largest  foreign  trade  are  Shanghai,  near  the  Yangtse  month  (Fig.  16), 
the  distributing  and  collecting  point  for  the  foreign  trade  of  the  Yangtse  valley 
and  north  China,  which  receives  and  forwards  a  larger  amount  of  commodities 
than  all  the  other  treaty  ports  together  ;  four  fifths  of  all  goods  received  here  are 
dispatched  to  other  parts  of  China  or  to  foreicm  i)orts;  Tientsin,  the  second 
largest  city  in  China,  on  the  Pei-ho.  the  port  of  Pekin  and  the  northern  terminus 
of  the  Grand  Canal  :  Hankau,  at  the  junction  of  the  Yangtse  and  Han  Rivers, 
which  has  the  largest  river  traffic  in  China,  and  is  the  greatest  tea  market :  four 
miles  of  water  front  are  constantly  lined  with  iunks  ;  Canton,  the  largest  Chinese 
city,  the  great  seaport  of  south  China  ;  300.000  persons  live  in  boats  along  the 
water  front ;  Niu-chnang  (Newchwang*.  the  port  of  Manchuria,  which  is  ice- 
bound for  four  months  ;  about  half  its  imi)ort  trade  is  with  the  United  States, 
chiefly  cotton  goods  ;  Swatau.  east  of  Canton,  comes  next,  followed  by  Chifu, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chili.  which  has  an  important  trade  in  United 
States  cottons.  The  eighth  port  in  amount  of  business  is  Chung-king,  on  the 
upper  Yangtse,  the  outlet  for  the  rich  province  of  Szechuen.  first  reached  by 
a  steamer  in  1898  in  spite  of  the  rapids  above  Ichang.  Chin-kiang  owes  its 
great  importance  as  a  port  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  lowest  point  of  the  Yangtse 
where  a  large  harbor  is  possible,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  river  and  the  Grand 
Canal.  Amoy  and  Fu-chau  are  tea-shipping  ports.  Pekin,  the  capital,  has  little 
commercial  but  large  political  importance. 

423 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  *423 

side  of  China  proper.*  It  is  a  grassy  j)lain,  shut  in  on  the 
east  aud  west  l)y  mouutain  ranges  and  traversed  by  the 
hirge,  navigable  Snngari  and  Nonni  rivers ;  it  raises  the  ce- 
reals and  other  crops  of  the  north  temperate  zone.  The 
largest  extent  of  pasturage  in  the  empire  is  in  Manchuria 
and  Mongolia,  cattle,  and  particularly  goats,  being  numer- 
ous in  Manchuria.  The  exports  sent  into  China,  except  along 
the  northern  border,  consist  of  opium,  beans,  wheat,  millet, 
ginseng,!  and  skins.  Wheat  and  hay  are  sent  into  eastern 
Siberia  along  the  northern  border ;  the  Eussians  also  hold 
Manchurian  lands  under  lease,  and  send  their  products 
north  across  the  Amur.  The  branch  railroad  building 
from  the  Trans-Siberian  line  to  Port  Arthur  (Fig.  140) 
crosses  Manchuria,  and  Russian  influence  there  is  in- 
creasing. 

Wool  is  the  chief  product  of  Mongolia.  Most  of  ]\Ion- 
golia  is  a  dry  plateau,  which  would  be  very  fertile  if  it 
were  well  watered.  Farming  is  confined  to  a  strip  along 
the  Chinese  border,  but  parts  of  the  plains  supply  sufficient 
herbage  for  large  numbers  of  goats,  sheep,  horses,  and 
camels.  XJrga  (Fig.  140)  is  a  large  market  for  the  sale  of 
live  stock  from  the  plains,  and  of  general  merchandise 
brought  from  Pekin  and  Siberia.  The  great  tea  caravans 
from  Pekin  pass  through  Urga  on  the  way  to  Siberia. 

Eastern  Turkestan  has  trade  with  China,  Russia,  and 
India.  The  province  is  mostly  a  sandy  waste  interspersed 
with  oases.  The  most  valuable  part  of  it  is  the  extreme 
west,  bordering  on  Russian  Central  Asia  and  India,  where 
many  streams  give  the  greatest  fertility  to  the  bordering 
lands.     Kashgar  is  the  largest  center  of  trade  with  Russian 

*  More  than  half  of  the  empire  is  embraced  in  the  distant  provinces 
Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Eastern  Turkestan,  and  Tibet. 

f  Ginseng  is  an  aromatic  root  highly  esteemed  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses in  (^hina,  though  not  regarded  as  important  by  Western  physi- 
cians. China  procures  it  from  Manchuria,  Korea,  and  to  some  extent 
from  this  country — Ohio,  Minnesota,  and  West  Virginia  exporting  it. 


424  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Turkestan  ;  it  sends  to  China  much  of  its  supplies  of  the 
highly  prized  jade.*  Yarkand  sends  hides,  skins,  leather, 
and  gold  into  India. 

Tibet  is  open  to  Europeans  only  at  one  town.  This  is  due 
partly  to  the  opposition  of  the  Lamas,  or  Buddhist  jjriests, 
who  are  afraid  their  religion  would  be  subverted  by  the  ad- 
mittance of  Western  peoples ;  and  also  to  the  influence  of 
China,  which  desires  to  monopolize  the  Tibetan  trade. 
Tibet  is  the  loftiest  plateau  in  the  world. f  It  is  on  a  level 
with  the  highest  peaks  in  the  Alps.  There  are  three  very 
bad  roads  from  Lhasa  into  China,  on  which  the  trade  is 
carried  by  horse,  mule,  or  yak  caravans.  China  sends 
enormous  quantities  of  very  poor  brick  tea,  and  white  and 
blue  cotton  goods,  receiving  in  return  gold,  skins,  and 
musk.  J  Considerable  gold  and  wool  also  reach  the  markets 
of  India  and  Eussia.  Carpets,  leather,  and  other  articles 
required  by  the  inhabitants  are  manufactured  at  Lhasa 
and  elsewhere. 

Hongkong  is  the  most  important  foreign  possession  in 
Ghina  (Fig.  149).  The  port  of  Victoria  on  this  little  island, 
acquired  by  England  in  1841,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  world,  being  surpassed  only  by  two  or  three  other 
ports  in  amount  of  commercial  movement,  the  entry  and 
clearance  of  vessels  giving  a  tonnage  of  nearly  15,000,000  a 
year.  Hongkong,  open  free  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations, 
is  an  entrepot  for  the  merchandise  of  the  Orient  and  the 
Occident.     Enormous  quantities  of  commodities  from  Asia 

*  Jade  (nephrite),  a  green  stone,  is  regarded  in  China  as  sacred. 
The  Chinese  fashion  it  with  great  care  into  bracelets,  thumb-rings, 
carved  vases,  and  other  articles. 

f  Its  average  height  is  13,000  feet,  and  in  the  north  it  attains  as 
much  as  15,000  feet.  Since  1894  foreigners  have  been  allowed  to  live 
at  Yatung,  near  the  frontier  of  India. 

X  Musk  is  a  substance  obtained  from  the  male  musk-deer  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  used  as  a  basis  of  perfumery  and,  to  some  extent,  in  medi- 
cine. 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


425 


30'     iVr^ -^ss  .V  ^  r^ 

LINTIN   1^  V\«_   ^>..^/*^  /r,-iS.<r  S  SINCLE  !.• 

20       ""H-°Vv?^.t^n^j\jk^4  HOSGKOXG 

■-  chaoa^     '■■•ff.^.°..?..'?.;.M^'.t".*..'.*. ^.^VJ.^T.?"?"^       -  . 

.*     •       ^    o*^ ""?      '^*"»"'«i  ENGLISH  MILES         '" 


Fig.  149.— The  dotted  line  shows  the  extent  of 
the  territory  around  Ilongliong  leased  to 
Great  Britain  in  1898. 


and  its  islands  are  taken  to  Hongkong  to  be  shipped  to 
many  countries,  Avhich  in  turn  send  their  goods  to  Hong- 
kong to  be  distributed  by  smaller  vessels  to  the  vari- 
ous Asiatic  ports  ;  thus 
Hongkong  is  a  great  re- 
ceiving and  forwarding 
station.  The  largest  part 
of  the  trade  is  with  south 
China,  just  as  Shanghai 
handles  most  of  the  trade 
of  the  Yangtse  valley  and 
north  China.  In  1898 
China  leased  to  Great 
Britain  about  400  square 
miles  of  land  and  water  around  Hongkong  in  order  to 
secure  the  defenses  of  the  island  and  give  room  for  com- 
mercial expansion. 

The  town  of  Macao,  near  Canton  (Fig.  148),  is  the  Por- 
tuguese possession  in  China.  Its  harbor  does  not  admit 
large  vessels,  and  it  has  lost  most  of  its  importance  since 
the  British  acquired  Hongkong,  but  it  is  still  important 
in  the  opium  trade.  Great  Britain  has  an  excellent  harbor 
at  its  naval  station,  Wei-hai-wei  (Fig.  148).  The  German 
concession  of  Kiao-chau  Bay,  with  the  territory  around  it, 
includes  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  China,  the  natural  out- 
let for  the  minerals  and  other  products  of  the  rich  province 
of  Shangtung. 

STATISTICS  FOR  CHINA 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1891--9(;.  1898. 

Imports 146.0  145.4 

Exports 149.0  110.3 


Imports  from  Lkading  Countries,  1898  (in  IMillion  Dollars) 

Continental 
Hongkong.      Great  Britain.       .Japan.  India.        United  States.       P^iiropf. 

67.4  24.3  15.7  13.3  12.0  7.7 


426  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Exports  to  Leading  Countries,  1898  (in  ^Million  Dollars) 
Hongkong.         Continental  Europe.        Japan.        United  States.        Great  Britain. 
43.0  30.3  10.5  8.3  7.4 

Population  (estimated,  1890) :  Empire,  357,250,000 ; 
China  proper,  345,250,000. 

The  silver  dollar,  coined  at  the  Canton  mint,  is  of  the 
same  value  as  United  States  or  Mexican  silver  dollars. 
Trade  statistics  are  computed  in  the  haikwan  tael,  which 
varies  in  value  from  65  to  72  cents. 


CHAPTER  XLI 

other  countries  of  asia 

Persia,  Maskat,  Afghanistan,  Straits  Settlements, 
SiAM,  French  Indo-China,  Korea,  Dutch  East  Indies 

Russia  and  England  are  rivals  for  the  trade  of  Persia.     For 

this  reason  Russia  has  closed  the  best  line  of  entrance  to 
other  nations.  Persia,  an  absolute  monarchy,  more  than 
twice  as  large  as  Texas,  has  three  main  lines  of  communi- 
cation with  the  Western  nations.  The  first  is  through 
Tabriz,  the  large  trade  center  in  the  northwest,  by  cara- 
van track  among  the  mountains  of  Armenia  to  the  Turk- 
ish port  of  Trebizond  on  the  Black  Sea  coast  of  Anatolia 
(Asia  Minor);  this  route  is  difficult,  costly,  and  declining 
since  Russia  built  railroads  to  the  north  of  Persia.  The 
second  is  through  the  Black  Sea  and  over  the  Caucasian 
Railroad  to  the  Caspian,  where  steamers  connect  Baku 
with  the  Persian  town  of  Resht,  other  frontier  towns 
being  within  easy  reach  of  the  Trans-Caspian  Railroad ; 
but  Russia,  in  order  to  keep  the  markets  of  north  and  cen- 
tral Persia  for  her  own  commodities,  forbids  the  transport 
of  foreign  goods  through  the  Caucasus  to  Persia.  Eng- 
land, the  United  States,  and  other  nations  therefore  trade 
with  Persia  by  the  sea  route  to  the  ports  of  south  Persia  in 
the  Persian  Gulf. 

Difficulties  of  transportation  and  lack  of  capital  dwarf 
the  commerce  of  this  rich  country.  It  is  an  elevated  table- 
land, a  third  of  it  desert  and  salt  plains,  with  other  irrigated 
plains  and  valleys,  watered  from  the  mountains  and  grow- 

437 


428  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

ing  wheat,  the  poppy  (opium),  raw  silk  shipped  to  Western 
markets,  cotton  sent  to  Bombay,  Moscow,  and  Marseilles, 
excellent  tobacco  known  throughout  the  western  half  of 
Asia,  and  dates  exported  through  the  Persian  Gulf.  Attar 
of  roses  is  a  famous  product  of  the  rose  gardens  of  Shiraz. 
Persian  horses  and  mules  are  noted  for  their  superior  quali- 
ties. The  mineral  resources  are  very  large,  but  mining  is 
neglected  because  roads  are  few  and  machinery  is  lacking. 
Practically  all  the  turquoises  in  the  markets  come  from  the 
mines  of  Xishapur  in  the  northeast  part  of  Persia.*  The 
most  important  manufactured  export  is  Persian  carpets  and 
rugs,  made  by  hand  in  many  mountain  villages  widely  scat- 
tered over  the  country.  They  are  made  in  a  great  variety 
of  patterns,  no  two  being  alike. 

The  Karun  Eiver,  emptying  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  be- 
ing navigable  for  small  steamers,  is  advantageous  for  the 
trade  of  south  Persia.  A  good  freight  road  has  been  built 
between  Eesht  and  Teheran,  the  capital,  for  the  benefit  of 
Russian  commerce.  Poor  caravan  routes  connect  the  main 
centers  of  trade,  Tabriz,  Teheran,  and  Mashad  in  the  north, 
Ispahan,  Yezd,  Kerman,  and  Shiraz  in  the  center  and  south  ; 
these  towns  are  connected  by  roads  with  trading  points 
along  the  northern  frontier  and  the  ports  of  Bushire,  Linga, 
and  Bandar  Abbas  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  imports  are  much  larger  than  the  exports,  consist- 
ing mainly  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  glass,  carriages, 
sugar,  kerosene,  and  tea  and  coffee  ;  the  exports  are  opium, 
cotton  and  wool,  silk,  dried  fruits,  carpets,  pearls,  tur- 
quoises, and  attar,  f 

The  vicinity  of  the  Bahrein  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf, 
a  British  possession,  is  one  of  the  largest  centers  of  pearl 

*  These  mines,  employing  about  1,500  persons,  are  opened  in  the 

solid  rock  by  picks  or  blasting.  The  stones  are  cut  at  Mashad,  most  of 
them  being  sent  to  Moscow  or  sold  to  wealthy  Persians. 

t  The  total  trade  in  1899  was  estimated  at  f  40.000,000,  the  imports 
being  nearly  two  thirds  of  that  amount. 


OTHER  COUNTRIES   OF   ASIA  429 

fishing,  some  thousands  of  men  and  400  boats  being  em- 
ployed.    The  yield  is  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 

Oman,  an  independent  sultanate  (on  the  southeast  coast  of 
Arabia),  is  barren  and  desolate  along  the  coast,  but  irrigated 
valleys  among  the  hills  produce  fruits,  vegetables,  and,  most 
of  all,  dates,  the  chief  export.  British  and  Hindu  mer. 
chants  are  established  at  Maskat,  the  capital,  which  trades 
with  India,  the  Eed  Sea,  and  Zanzibar. 

Aden  is  a  free  port,  serviceable  to  all  the  great  trading 
nations  (Fig.  IS-t).  This  British  town,  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Arabia,  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  coaling  stations  for  merchant  vessels  in  the 
world.  As  it  is  open  to  all  nations,  it  is  a  receiving  and 
forwarding  point  for  the  commodities  of  the  surrounding 
countries,  sent  to  Aden  in  small  vessels  and  transshipped 
to  ocean  liners  for  various  parts  of  the  world.*  The  United 
States  has  a  large  share  in  its  trade,  importing  sheep  and 
goat  skins.  Mocha  coffee,  and  ivory,  and  exporting  great 
quantities  of  cotton  fabrics  that  are  sold  to  the  people  of 
Arabia  and  northeast  Africa. f 

Tin  is  the  chief  export  of  the  Straits  Settlements.  This 
crown  colony  of  Great  Britain  occupies  the  southern  part 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  is  commercially  notable  for 
two  reasons  :  The  native  protectorates,  included  in  its  terri- 
tory, produce  about  one  half  of  the  supply  of  tin,  Avhicli  is 
smelted  at  Singapore  in  the  largest  tin  smelting  works  in 
the  world.     Tin  is  about  one  sixth  of  the  total  exports,  the 

*  The  imports  in  1899  were  $14,500,000,  and  the  exports  $11,500,000. 

f  Afghanistan,  the  "buffer  state"  Itetween  Russian  Central  ^\sia 
and  India,  has  very  little  exterior  commerce.  It  is  one  of  the  sterile, 
waste  places  of  the  world,  with  some  fertile  valleys,  where  the  nomad, 
warlike  populace,  restrained  to  some  extent  by  the  stern  rule  of  their 
Ameer,  breed  camels,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  make  excellent  fabrics  of 
wool  and  hair.  Some  machinery  has  been  imported  to  Kabul,  the  capi- 
tal, where  firearms  and  other  articles  are  made  under  British  superin- 
tendence, 


430  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

United  States  buying  half  of  the  metal  used  in  its  tin-plate 
mills  from  this  source.  The  other  conspicuous  fact  is  that 
the  colony  fronts  upon  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  a  narrow 
gateway  between  the  Occident  and  the  Orient,  where  it  is 
convenient  to  have  an  entrepot  for  the  collection  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  commodities  both  of  the  East  and  the  West. 
As  Singapore,  with  its  large,  landlocked  harbor,  fulfills  the 
requirements  of  a  great  receiving  and  forwarding  port,  it 
shares  this  large  business  with  Hongkong.  Much  of  the 
tin,  sugar,  tobacco,  sago,  rice,  rattan,*  hides,  rubber,  gutta- 
percha, copra,  spices,  f  coffee,  and  other  products  of  the 
East  and  the  general  merchandise  of  the  West  are  taken  to 
Singapore  and  transferred  to  steamships  going  to  all  parts 
of  the  world,  excepting  South  Africa.  The  steamship  move- 
ment at  Singapore  is  about  6,000,000  tons  a  year,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  large  number  of  small  native  coasting  vessels. 
Malacca  and  Penang,  formerly  of  great  importance  in  inter- 
national trade,  have  declined  with  the  growth  of  their  rival. 
Singapore  is  also  an  important  coaling  station. 

*  The  rattan,  one  of  the  palms,  abounds  chiefly  in  the  East  Indies, 
the  best  coming  from  Borneo.  Walking  sticks,  chairs,  chair  bottoms, 
the  fancy  bodies  of  carriages,  and  baskets  are  made  of  it. 

f  The  Malayan  Archipelago  and  the  neighboring  mainland  are  the 
source  of  most  of  the  spices.  Mustard,  however,  which  is  commercially 
the  most  important,  is  grown  in  most  parts  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  in  the  East  Indies  and  Asia  Minor.  Black  and  white 
pepper,  among  the  most  common  spices,  is  collected  from  nearly  all  the 
islands  of  the  archipelago  and  shipped  from  Singapore.  Red  peppers 
(Chile  and  Cayenne  peppers),  though  natives  of  South  America,  are  now 
widely  grown  in  warm  countries.  The  nutmeg  is  the  kernel  of  the 
fruit  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  Banda  and  other  I\Ialayan  islands ;  mace 
is  the  inside  covering  of  the  nutmeg.  The  clove  is  the  dried  bud  of  the 
clove  tree  exported  from  the  East  Indies,  but  most  of  the  crop  comes 
from  Zanzibar  and  the  neighboring  island  of  Pemba.  India.  China, 
and  West  Africa  add  their  supplies  of  ginger  to  those  received  from 
Jamaica  and  other  Western  regions.  A  large  part  of  the  ginger  of 
commerce  is  shipped  from  Calcutta.  This  country  imports  far  more 
pepper  than  any  other  spices.    Most  spices  are  on  the  free  list. 


OTHER   COLTNTRIES   OF   ASIA  431 

Rice  is  the  chief  export  of  Siam.  The  richest  and  most 
populous  part  of  the  kingdom  is  the  valley  of  the  Menam, 
which  has  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  Siam  that  the 
Nile  has  to  Egypt.  Upon  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  Menam 
depend  the  crops  of  rice  that  are  grown  extensively  on  the 
flat,  alluvial  lands  of  the  delta,  forming  not  only  the  main 
article  of  food  of  the  Siamese,  but  also  the  principal  prod- 
uct and  export.  Siam  is  surpassed  only  by  Burma  and 
Cochin  China  in  exports  of  this  commodity  (from  §10,000,- 
000  to  $12,000,000  a  year),  about  four  fifths  of  the  total  ex- 
ports. The  grain  is  consumed  mainly  in  China  and  Singa- 
pore. While  the  south  of  Siam  is  a  flat  delta  region,  the 
north  has  fine  mountains  and  dense  tropical  forests,  in 
which  the  teak  tree  is  the  most  valuable  timber  (p.  108). 
The  teak  industry  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  British 
firms,  who  employ  natives  to  fell  the  trees,  and  use  ele- 
phants to  drag  the  heavy  logs  to  the  streams.  When  they 
reach  the  Menam  the  logs  are  fastened  together  in  enor- 
mous rafts  and  floated  500  miles  or  so  to  Bangkok,  where 
they  are  squared  in  saw  mills  and  sent  to  London  and  other 
markets.  Danish  and  Dutch  steamers  afford  the  only  regu- 
lar communications  between  Bangkok  and  Europe,  most  of 
the  trade  being  transshipped  at  Singapore  or  Hongkong. 
Bangkok,  twenty-five  miles  up  the  Menam,  can  not  be 
reached  by  large  steamships.  The  better  classes,  while 
intelligent  and  progressive,  are  opposed  to  dredging  the 
Menam  to  Bangkok,  on  the  ground  that  the  improvement 
would  enable  foreign  war  ships  to  bombard  the  city. 

Rice  is  the  chief  product  of  French  Indo-China.  Of  the 
ionr  dependencies  included  in  French  ludo-C'hina — viz.. 
Cochin  China,  Cambodia,  Annam,  and  Tonkin — Cochin 
China  is  the  oldest  and  most  prosperous  colony.  It  consists 
mainly  of  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Mekong  River  delta, 
which  is  covered  with  rice  fields,  the  unfailing  water  supply 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  climate  being  peculiarly  favor- 
able to  this  crop.     Cochin  China  sends  more  rice  than  any 


432  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

other  country  to  Hongkong  and  Singapore  to  be  distrib- 
uted to  the  Philippines,  China,  and  other  Asiatic  lands. 
The  exports  exceed  500,000  tons  a  year,  France  taking  most 
of  the  crop  that  is  not  sent  to  Oriental  countries.  Fish, 
salt,  cotton,  and  pepper  (the  latter,  harvested  in  January 
and  February,  supplying  most  of  the  needs  of  France)  are 
other  important  exports.  The  port  of  Saigon  has  a  com- 
mercial movement  of  600,000  tons  a  year.  Cambodia,  which 
has  no  sea  front,  carries  on  its  very  small  external  trade 
tlirough  Saigon.  The  coasts  of  Annam  raise  so  little  rice 
that  fish  is  the  staple  food  of  its  5,000,000  inhabitants. 
Over  30,000  persons  engage  in  the  fisheries  along  the  coast, 
the  salt  fish  sent  to  Tonkin,  China,  and  Singapore  supply- 
ing a  considerable  part  of  that  commodity  consumed  along 
the  south  coast  of  Asia.  Tonkin  is  the  most  populous 
part  of  the  French  possessions,  but  it  is  least  developed. 
Most  of  its  great  rice  crop  is  needed  for  home  consumption. 
All  these  dependencies  are  rich  in  resources,  but  their  devel- 
opment, except  in  Cochin  China,  is  in  the  future.  Only  a 
small  part  of  their  imports  come  from  France ;  England,  the 
United  States,  and  Japan  supplying  most  of  the  textiles, 
general  manufactures,  and  kerosene. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Korea  doubled  in  the  five  years 
ending  in  1899.  Korea,  formerly  called  "  The  Ilermit  Na- 
tion," is  now  rapidly  opening  to  foreign  trade  and  influ- 
ence. As  the  country  is  almost  wholly  agricultural,  beans, 
rice,  hides,  and  ginseng  are  the  only  exports  of  importance, 
except  gold  taken  from  mines  under  American  manage- 
ment. Cotton  cloths  are  more  than  half  of  the  imports, 
silk  goods  and  kerosene  being  also  very  important.  Cot- 
ton yarn,  imported  from  Japan,  is  woven  into  fabrics  that 
have  a  ready  sale  on  account  of  their  durability.  Che- 
mulpo, the  chief  port,  accessible  only  at  high  tide,  is  con- 
nected with  Seoul,  the  capital,  by  a  railroad.  Steamship 
lines  connect  the  country  with  Japan,  China,  and  Madi- 
vostok. 


OTHER  COUNTRIES  OF  ASIA  433 

The  Dutch  East  Indies  contribute  far  more  to  foreign  trade 
than  the  other  colonial  possessions  in  Asia.  This  is  due  largely 
to  the  Dutch  colonial  sysfeni,  which  has  its  best  develop- 
ment in  the  island  of  Java.  All  the  native  sultans,  chiefs, 
and  police  are  in  the  pay  of  the  Government,  the  Dutch 
ruling  through  the  natives,  but  requiring  strict  compliance 
with  the  laws.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  governing  natives 
to  compel  the  people  to  be  industrious  and  law  abiding. 
The  Dutch  Government  itself,  under  the  name  of  the 
Netherlands  Trading  Co.,  plants  and  sells  crops.  Its  net 
revenue  from  Java,  about  114,000,000  a  year  after  paying 
all  expenses,  is  the  result  of  toil  and  enterprise  and  not 
of  burdensome  taxation. 

The  most  important  Dutch  possessions  are  Java,  Su- 
matra with  the  neighboring  small  islands  of  Banka  and  Billi- 
ton,  Dutch  Borneo,  the  southern  half  of  that  large  island, 
and  Celebes.  The  pearl  of  the  whole  archipelago  is  Java, 
the  most  densely  populated  land  near  the  equator.  All  the 
lowlands  and  the  mountain  sides  to  a  high  elevation  have 
been  turned  into  gardens.  Eice,  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco 
are  raised  on  the  lower  lands.  Java  has  been  the  largest 
producer  of  cane  sugar  (Fig.  45)  only  since  the  Cuban 
insurrection  of  1895.  In  the  middle  zone  are  the  coffee 
plantations,  Java  coffee  being  exported  to  all  parts  of  the 
w^orld.  Still  higher  are  the  tea  plantations,  which  yield 
about  10,000,000  pounds  a  year.  Java  is  also  the  largest  pro- 
ducer of  cinchona  bark  (quinine).  Its  oil  wells  are  reduc- 
ing tlie  imports  of  kerosene  and  supplying  a  part  of  the 
Eastern  market.  Little  of  its  cotton  (about  3,500,000 
pounds  a  year)  is  exported. 

The  products  of  Sumatra  are  similar  to  those  of  Java, 
except  that  it  raises  a  far  larger  quantity  of  tobacco,  its 
chief  export,  of  which  $4,000,000  worth  a  year  is  sent  to  tlic 
United  States.  Black  pepper  aud  guttii-perclia  are  also 
important  exports.  The  little  islands  IJanka  and  Billiton 
are  among  the  large  sources  of  tin  (Fig.  GO).  Dutch  Borneo 
28 


434  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

has  considerable  trade  in  gutta-percha  and  gold,  but  its  re- 
sources are  mostly  undeveloped.  Spices  are  a  large  export 
from  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands  ;  nearly  all  the  nutmegs 
in  trade  come  from  the  nutmeg  gardens  of  Lontar,  the 
largest  island  in  the  group.  Celebes  has  little  part  in  for- 
eign commerce,  except  that  the  port  of  Makassar,  the  chief 
town,  is  a  forwarding  port  for  all  the  commodities,  mostly 
beche-de-mer,*  pearl  shell,  tortoise  shell,  birds  of  paradise 
skins,  and  spices  that  come  from  the  eastern  Dutch  islands. 
A  number  of  the  smaller  Dutch  islands  have  considerable 
trade  in  coffee,  cacao,  and  spices.  The  port  of  Batavia,  in 
Java,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
through  which  the  larger  part  of  the  exports,  most  of  them 
sent  to  the  Xetherlands  (p.  254),  are  forwarded,  f 

*  A  sea  slug  of  the  East  Indies,  whose  dried  flesh  is  esteemed  by 
the  Chinese  in  their  soups. 

f  A  part  of  north  Borneo,  about  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  is  under 
the  protection  of  the  British  Government.  Among  its  exports  are  edi- 
ble birds'  nests  (to  China),  coffee,  pepper,  timber,  and  camphor  sent  to 
Singapore  for  forwarding  to  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies. 


CHAPTEE  XLII 

AUSTRALIA 

Australia  is  the  greatest  sheep  and  wool  producing  coun- 
try. This  fact  alone  would  stamp  it  as  a  region  of  prevail- 
ing dryness.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents,  being 
about  as  large  as  the  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska, 
and  is  the  only  continent  that  lies  wholly  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  Like  South  America  and  Africa,  its  outline 
is  regular ;  having  few  deep  inlets,  it  is  deficient  in  good 
harbors.  Only  on  the  eastern  and  southeastern  edge  are 
there  long  ranges  of  mountains,  the  rest  of  Australia  being 
a  flat  lowland,  diversified  only  by  isolated  groups  of  moun- 
tains or  hills.  The  eastern  mountains  retard  the  progress 
of  the  prevailing  east  winds  (the  southeast  trades),  and 
deprive  them  of  most  of  their  moisture.  The  narrow  east 
coast,  with  long  and  comparatively  narrow  strips  of  farm- 
ing lands  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  is  therefore 
abundantly  watered  (Fig.  150).  A  wide  area  west  of  the 
mountains,  receiving  only  small  rainfall  from  the  nearly 
dry  winds,  grows  little  but  grass.  This  is  the  great,  steppe- 
like grazing  region,  particularly  adapted,  on  account  of  its 
dryness,  for  the  raising  of  shoe]),  which  feed  l)y  millions  on 
the  stations.*  Cattle  are  in  large  numbers,  but  except  in 
the  moister  regions  of  Queensland,  the  grazing  lands  are 
not  so  favorable  to  them  as  to  sheep.  West  of  the  grazing 
lands  stretches  the  desert,  in  whose  sandy  waste  explorers 

*  Ranches  in  Australia  arc  called  stations  or  runs.  Itanc^IiiiicM  arc 
called  squatters, 

435 


436 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


have  disappeared  and  left  no  trace.  The  great  summer 
heat  of  the  desert  draws  monsoon  rains  from  the  northern 
seas,  covering  the  north  coast  with  tropical  verdure.  The 
prevailing  westerly  winds,  "the  roaring  forties,"  are  too 
far  south  to  benefit  the  western  half  of  the  south  coast, 
but  the  southeastern  prolongation  of  Australia  catches  con- 
siderable of  the  rain  they  bring,  placing  wheat  and  other 


NS   ^^{''''am 


AUSTRALIA 


Bistribution  of 
Arable  and  Grazing  Laiid^ 

^^^  Arable  Lands. 
\'  ■     j  Grazing  La  nds. 


!a/f  lc,k   -/    j'        .  ,  '  '     -7 


SCALE  1-  50  000,000 


0    100  200  300  400  500  COO  TOO 


Fig.  150. 


crops  among  the  sources  of  wealth  in  the  southern  portions 
of  South  Australia  and  Victoria.  Areas  of  grazing,  farm 
lands,  and  forests  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  low  and 
sandy  west  coast. 

Most  of  the  people  are  fanners,  sheep  growers,  and  miners. 
Only  seventeen  towns  have  a  population  of  more  than 
10,000.      K^ew  York  city  has  about  nine  tenths  as  many 


AUSTRALIA  437 

inhabitants  as  the  entire  continent ;  but,  though  the  popu- 
lation is  sparse,  the  purchasing  power  of  the  people  is  very 
large.  Their  foreign  trade,  in  proportion  to  population,  is 
much  larger  than  that  of  most  nations.* 

Stock-raising  is  far  more  important  than  agriculture  (Fig. 
150).  As  sheep  grazing  is  less  dependent  upon  rainfall 
than  other  pasturage,  sheep  are  the  main  dependence  and 
wool  (largely  merino  of  a  superior  quality)  is  the  great 
product.  Wool  is  more  cheaply  produced  than  in  most 
other  countries,  because  the  flocks,  living  in  the  open  air 
throughout  the  year,  require  no  winter  fodder,  and  pastur- 
age and  labor  are  very  cheap.  The  grasses  of  the  pastoral 
regions  are  very  nutritious.  New  South  AVales  has  more 
than  half  of  the  sheep,  wool  being  the  staple  export.  The 
railroad  system  was  extended  far  into  the  plains  to  the 
Darling  Eiver  (Fig.  153)  solely  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  wool  trade.  'New  South  Wales  has  the  advantage  of 
many  streams  from  the  mountains,  which  flow  through  the 
plains  and,  being  subject  to  floods,  grow  luxuriant  grass 
along  their  courses,  besides  giving  the  flocks  abundant 
drink.  Queensland  is  second  in  the  number  of  sheep ;  one 
reason  for  extending  railroads  to  Charleville  and  Hughen- 
den  was  to  develop  wool  growing  on  the  excellent  pastures 

*  The  foreign  trade  of  New  South  Wales  in  1894  was  $240,  and  of 
Victoria  $183  per  ccqnfa.  Unusual  features  of  their  governmental 
system  make  the  Australians  an  interesting  economic  study.  The 
larger  part  of  the  land  is  owned  by  the  states  ;  vast  areas  of  grazing 
lands,  for  example,  are  merely  leased  to  the  tenants.  The  railroads, 
street  cars,  telephone  and  telegraph  services,  and  other  public  utilities 
are  managed  l)y  the  Government  and  owned  V)y  the  people,  instead  of 
being  the  property  of  corporations.  The  colonial  governments  in- 
curreil  large  debts  to  develop  these  and  other  conveniences,  such  as  the 
building  of  deep-water  docks,  believing  that  the  cost  would  be  amply 
justified  by  the  increased  facilities  for  transacting  business  and  accu- 
mulating wealth.  The  colonies  became  states  (1901)  in  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia,  a  federal  government  conducting  its  own  affairs 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


438  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  far  inland  downs.  Victoria  is  third  in  the  quantity 
of  wool,  the  product,  however,  being  unsurpassed  in  the 
world  for  fineness  and  length  of  staple,  on  account  of  the 
quality  of  the  grass  and  the  drier  air.  A  severe  disadvan- 
tage in  the  sheep  industry  is  the  terrible  droughts  that 
sometimes  kill  the  grass  and  dry  up  the  streams,  millions 
of  sheep  perishing, in  a  few  weeks.* 

Large  quantities  of  Australian  wool  are  sent  to  all  the 
great  manufacturing  countries.  X early  the  entire  crop  is 
exported,  the  few  woolen  mills  of  Victoria  and  Xew  South 
Wales  having  failed  to  reduce  the  growing  imports  of  tex- 
tiles to  any  appreciable  extent.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
trade  Australian  wool  could  be  purchased  only  at  public 
sales  in  London  ;  to-day  many  buyers,  particularly  from 
continental  Europe,  visit  the  markets  at  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
Geelong,  and  Adelaide  every  year  to  make  their  purchases. 
In  spite  of  the  long-continued  decline  in  the  price  of  wool, 
the  sales  amounted  in  1897,  after  years  of  severe  droughts, 
to  about  1100,000,000,  forty-three  per  cent  of  the  sales  be- 
ing those  of  Xew  South  Wales. 

Frozen  meat  and  other  animal  products  are  large  exports. 
Meat  refrigeration  was  long  neglected  in  Australia,  though 
it  had  become  a  great  business  in  Kew  Zealand  and  Argen- 
tina. After  1892  Australia  began  to  compete  in  this  trade, 
and  in  1896  it  surpassed  its  competitors.!  The  business  is 
confined  to  the  four  eastern  states.  It  costs  three  cents  a 
pound  to  kill,  freeze,  ship,  and  sell  mutton  in  London. 
Only  Queensland  is  prominent  in  exporting  frozen   beef. 

*  Between  1894  and  1898  the  sheep  were  reduced  by  droughts  from 
109,940,609  to  83,822,704.  A  rainfall  of  10  inches  per  annum  will  sup- 
port 10  sheep  to  the  square  mile ;  13  inches,  20  sheep ;  20  inches,  70 
sheep. 

f  In  1896  Australia  sent  to  England  2,385.736  frozen  sheep  car- 
casses, New  Zealand  1.996,441,  and  Argentina  1,790,562.  The  Queens- 
land shipments  of  frozen  beef  were  counted  in  the  Australian  figures  as 
four  sheep  for  each  beef  carcass. 


•5       < 


AUSTRALIA  439 

As  that  state  is  warmer  and  not  so  dry,  it  is  more  favorable 
for  cattle  than  sheep ;  having  more  than  half  the  cattle  of 
Australia,  it  sells  large  quantities  of  frozen  and  salted  beef, 
hides,  and  tallow.  The  dairying  industry  is  most  impor- 
tant in  Victoria,  butter  being  made  in  co-operative  factories 
and  large  quantities  sent  to  Great  Britain,*  South  Africa, 
and  other  markets. 

Most  of  the  useful  plants  of  all  zones  grow  in  Australia 
(Fig.  150).  Cotton  of  good  staple,  grown  in  Queensland 
and  northern  New  South  Wales,  is  small  in  amount,  but 
proves  the  practicability  of  cotton  culture.  The  warm, 
moist  coast  district  of  north  Queensland,  especially  around 
Cairns  (Fig.  152),  producing  millions  of  bunches  of  bananas, 
supplies  the  Australian  markets.  Two  crops  of  maize  may 
be  grown  each  year  on  the  low  coast  lands  of  south  Queens- 
land, the  grain  thriving  all  along  the  sea  border  of  this 
state.  The  Queensland  sugar  plantations,  mainly  north 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  between  Mackay  and  Herber- 
ton,  produce  more  than  100,000  tons  of  sugar  a  year,  most 
of  which  is  sold  in  the  neighboring  states.  As  Europeans 
can  not  work  in  these  hot  fields,  natives  of  the  Pacific 
islands,  as  well  as  Chinese  and  Japanese,  are  employed  on 
the  plantations.  New  South  Wales  also  grows  considerable 
cane  in  the  north,  preparing  the  product  for  market  in  its 
own  refineries,  which  also  treat  considerable  Queensland 
raw  sugar. 

Wheat  and  the  grape  are  the  main  products  on  the 
cooler  and  drier  farm  lands  of  the  south.  The  finest  vine- 
yards are  around  Albury,  in  New  South  Wales,  though 
Victoria  is  now  the  chief  vine-growing  state.  The  grapes 
from  many  thousands  of  acres  are  turned  into  raisins.  A 
large  amount  of  claret  and  other  wines  is  also  made  for 

*  The  United  States  sells  much  less  butter  in  England  than  is  sold 
there  by  Victoria,  which  is  a  little  larger  than  Minnesota  and  11,000 
miles  from  the  British  market. 


440  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

home  consumption  and  export.  Many  farmers  have  aban- 
doned wheat-raising  for  the  vine,  grapes  being  in  good 
seasons  a  more  profitable  crop.  Most  of  the  export  wheat 
comes  from  South  Australia,  which  gives  more  attention  to 
this  cereal  than  the  other  states.  Australia  is  not  a  reliable 
contributor  to  the  wheat  supplies  of  importing  countries, 
as  short  crops  often  result  from  severe  droughts,  and  even 
in  good  years  the  yield  per  acre  is  not  large.  Irrigation, 
already  much  employed  in  Victoria  and  South  Australia, 
will  greatly  extend  the  agricultural  area. 

All  varieties  of  the  useful  eucalyptus  tree  abound  (p. 
108).  As  all  native  timber  is  hardwood,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  for  ordinary  building  purposes,  and  consequently 
a  large  amount  of  pine  is  imported  from  our  Pacific  coast, 
Sweden,  and  Canada.  The  superior  hardwoods,  jarrah  for 
railroad  ties  and  karri  for  wood  paving,  are  exported. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  enormous  (Fig.  151).  Gold  is  the 
largest  mineral  resource.  It  is  attracting  thousands  of 
immigrants  into  West  Australia,  one  of  the  greatest  gold 
centers  in  the  world.  Nearly  all  the  gold  is  minted  at  Mel- 
bourne or  Sydney,  and  exported  in  sovereigns  and  half- 
sovereigns,  a  great  deal  coming  to  this  country  to  settle 
trade  balances.  The  larger  part  of  the  coal  comes  from 
the  collieries  around  Newcastle  and  Lithgow,  in  New  South 
Wales,  which  produce  about  4,000,000  tons  a  year,  export- 
ing to  south  Asia  and  even  to  our  Pacific  coast.  Tin  is  a 
large  product,  particularly  of  Tasmania.  New  South  Wales 
is  the  only  state  having  extensive  beds  of  iron  ore,  but 
their  development,  thus  far,  has  been  small. 

Manufactures  are  comparatively  small.*  There  is  as  yet 
no  development  of  any  great  branch  of  industry  that  is 

*  The  facts  presented  in  this  volume  have  shown  that  only  Europe, 
Asia,  and  the  United  States  are  pre-eminent  in  manufacturing  pursuits. 
While  the  manufactures  of  Asia  are  largely  inferioi',  judged  by  Western 
standards,  they  are  adapted  to  the  civilization  of  the  Asiatic  peoples, 
and,  being  enormously  developed,  Asia  may  be  classed  as  one  of  the 


Fig.  151. — The  gold  mines  in  the  desert  of  West  Australia,  from  Kimberley  to  Dun- 
das,  are  supplying  (1901)  more  than  half  the  Australian  output.  The  treasure 
these  desert  sands  concealed  was  unknown  in  188,5.  The  wonderful  development 
of  these  diggings  placed  Australia  second  in  the  list  of  gold  producers  in  1899, 
being  surpassed  only  by  the  South  African  Republic  (compare  Pig.  (58).  South 
Australia  is  famous  for  its  copper  mines.  Wallaroo  and  Moonta  have  the  largest 
copper  and  silver  smelting  works  in  Australia.  Gold  has  contributed  most  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  small  state  of  Victoria,  which  is  the  most  densely  peopled  part 
of  the  continent.  The  most  |)roductive  mines  are  around  Ballarat  and  Sandhurst. 
The  larger  state  of  New  South  Wales  is  not  so  prominent  in  gold  mining,  but  it 
has  at  Broken  Hill  one  of  the  richest  silver  mines  in  the  world,  the  output  being 
exported  through  South  Australia,  as  Port  Pirie  (Fig.  1.52)  is  the  nearest  seaport. 
Silver  mining  has  decreased  in  the  past  few  years  on  account  of  the  low  price  of 
the  metal.  Queensland  is  the  third  of  the  great  gold-producing  states,  with  three 
conspicuous  centers.  The  richest  is  in  the  north,  with  Charters  Towers  and  Ra- 
venswood  as  the  leading  centers.  Farther  south  the  Mount  Morgan  mine  is  (ma 
of  the  richest  in  the  world,  being  practically  a  mass  of  solid  gold  ore.  Its  i)rofit8 
have  amounted  to  about  $24,000,000  since  1885.  Gymi)ie  is  the  southern  center  of 
the  gold  industry.  Th(^  great  tin  formation,  beginning  in  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  extending  through  Banka  and  Billiton.  is  continued  among  the  islands  through 
Australia  and  into  Tasmania.  The  deposits  are  chiefly  worked  at  Ilerberton  and 
Stantliorpe  in  Queensland,  in  northern  New  South  Wales,  and  form  the  main 
wealth  of  Tasmania  (Fig.  00).  where  the  ores  are  smelted  at  Launceston  (F'ig.  1.52) 
with  coal  mined  in  the  island.  Good  coal  exists  in  gn-at  abundanc(!  f>n  the  east 
coast.  Being  near  the  sea,  it  may  easily  he  ciirricd  to  the  other  coasts  which  lack 
coal.  Sydney  has  the  great  advantage  of  coal  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  it. 
The  pearl  flsheries  of  the  north  yield  mother-of-pearl  and  some  pearls. 

441 


442  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

capable  of  supplying  the  needs  of  the  country.  The  tex- 
tile, metal,  glass,  and  china  industries  are  especially  insig- 
nificant. Still,  the  predominant  British  population  is  am- 
bitious to  develop  on  a  large  scale  the  manufacture  of  their 
abundant  raw  materials.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  larger 
cities,  accordingly,  there  are  well-equipped  establishments 
for  making  agricultural  and  other  machinery,  tanneries, 
soap  and  candle  works,  woolen,  flour,  and  saw  mills,  brewer- 
ies, and  sugar  and  brandy  factories.  Native  skins  and  furs 
are  manufactured  also,  and  shipyards  turn  out  an  important 
tonnage  of  small  vessels.  Until  manufactures  have  far 
greater  expansion,  however,  the  imports  will  continue  to 
consist  mainly  of  the  industrial  products  of  other  coun- 
tries. 

Eailroads  are  rapidly  developing  (Fig.  152).  Victoria, 
the  smallest  state,  is  more  amply  provided  than  any  other, 
with  lines  traversing  all  parts  of  it.  South  Australia  has 
far  advanced  the  line  that  is  to  cross  the  continent  from 
south  to  north.  West  Australia  is  pushing  lines  far  out 
into  the  desert  to  the  new  gold  fields.  The  disadvantage 
of  the  railroad  system  is  that  each  colony  adopted  its  own 
gauge,  so  that  freight  and  passengers  must  still  be  trans- 
ferred to  otlier  trains  at  the  frontiers  of  the  states. 

Most  exports  are  raw  products,  and  most  imports  are 
manufactured  commodities.  Few  countries  have  equaled 
Australia  in  rapid  growth  of  foreign  trade.*  Most  of  the 
total   trade  is  with  the  United  Kingdom  and   the  other 

two  great  manufacturing  continents.  The  rest  of  the  world  consists  of 
colonies  which  depend  chiefly  upon  the  mother  countries  and  other 
lands  for  the  larger  part  of  their  manufactures ;  former  colonies,  now 
independent,  which  are  not  yet  able  to  supply  their  need  for  manufac- 
tured commodities  without  large  imports ;  and  regions  inhabited  by 
primitive  races  which  still  occupy  a  low  plane  of  development. 

*  The  totar foreign  trade  of  the  colonies  in  1825  was  $2.500.000 ; 
1851,  144,800,000;  1871,  $345,500,000;  1897,  $563,800,000.  The  trade 
of  the  Australian  colonies  with  one  another  has  always  been  counted 
as  foreign  trade. 


Fig.  153. — The  east  coast  is  more  favorable  for  commerce  than  the  others.  It  is  pro- 
tooted  for  more  than  1.000  miles  by  the  Great  Barrier  Reef.  It  has  the  largest 
number  of  railroads,  bringing  the  resources  of  the  interior  within  easy  reach  of 
the  ports.  Cooktown,  the  most  northern  harbor  on  the  east  coast,  is  the  outlet 
for  m-iny  rice  and  sugar  plantations  and  the  Palmer  gold  field.  Cairns  ships  the 
large  tin  output  of  Ilerberton  and  many  cargoes  of  bananas.  Long  linos  of  rail- 
road extend  inland  from  Townsville'.  Rockhampton,  and  Brisbane.  Townsville 
monopolizes  the  gold  trade  of  the  famous  Charters  Towers  and  Ravonswood 
mines.  The  railroad  from  Rookhampton  taps  the  large  gold  and  cattle  trade  of 
central  C^ueensland.  Briibane  commands  the  coal  and  wool  trade  of  south  Queens- 
land. Newcastle,  the  lartjest  coal  port  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  depends  upon 
the  coal  mines  within  a  radius  of  30  miles  around  it.  Sydney,  with  over  100  miles 
of  water  front  along  its  splendid  bay,  is  the  terminus  (1901)  of  all  steamship  lines 
between  Europe  and  Australia. 

The  west  half  of  the  south  coast  has  no  harbor  except  Albany,  a  i)ort  of  call  for 
steamers  from  Suez  with  freight  for  the  west  coast  to  l)e  forwarded  by  rail.  Port 
Pirie  and  Port  Augusta  are  important  harbors  on  Sponoor  Gulf.  Port  Pirie  is  one 
of  the  largest  wheat  |)ort.i  and  a  suijjily  depot  for  the  silver  mines  at  Broken  Hill 
and  Silverton.  Port  Auirnsta  is  the  outlet  for  the  j)astoral  regions  west  and  the 
wheat  lands  northeast  of  it.  Adelaide,  the  outlet  of  a  fine  agricultural  region,  has 
a  harbor  that  may  be  entered  by  the  largest  vessels  in  any  weather.  Melbourne, 
the  largest  city  of  the  Commonwealth,  on  the  river  Yarra,  has  a  commodious  har- 
bor :  vessels  of  8.000  ton-  may  ascend  the  Yarra  to  the  heart  of  the  city,  which 
handles  nine  tenths  of  tho  foreign  trade  of  Victoria. 

Fremantle,  tho  most  important  port  on  the  west  coast,  is  connected  with  the 
eastern  i)orts  by  coasting  vessels,  and  with  Perth,  the  capital  of  Western  Aus- 
tralia, by  river  find  rail.  Geraldton  is  tho  port  of  the  rich  Murchison  gold  field 
and  of  the  large  pastoral  district  to  the  oast,  from  whioli  thousands  of  bales  of 
wool  are  exported.  The  best  north  coast  harbor  is  Port  Darwin,  the  outlet  of  the 
neighboring  gold  and  tin  mines.  Palmerston  is  important  as  tho  terminus  of  the 
overland  telegraph,  and  the  starting  point  of  one  of  the  two  cable  lines  to  Java 
and  F^urope.  The  overland  railroad  from  Adelaide  to  Palmerston  has  nearly 
reached  the  center  of  the  continent. 

443 


444  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

British  colonies,  the  non-British  imports  in  1897  amounting 
to  only  about  15  per  cent  and  the  exports  to  18  per  cent. 
The  trade  with  the  United  States  and  Germany,  both  of 
which  have  regular  steamship  communications  with  Aus- 
tralia, is  growing  rapidly.  The  most  important  exports  are 
wool,  hides  and  siiins,  frozen  and  preserved  meats,  butter 
and  cheese,  gold  and  other  metals,  wheat  and  flour.  The 
principal  imports  are  textiles  and  other  manufactures,  tea, 
coffee,  and  sugar.  The  United  States  buys  from  Australia 
a  great  deal  of  wool,  gums,  hides  and  skins,  copper,  and  con- 
siderable coal ;  it  sells  to  Australia  petroleum,  railroad  cars, 
tobacco,  hardware,  machinery,  leather  goods,  and  other 
articles  worth  five  times  the  amount  of  its  purchases  from 
that  continent. 

STATISTICS   FOR  AUSTRALIA 
Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

]881-'85. 

Imports 231.6 

Exports 226.6 

Population  (1898),  3,789,559. 

British  coinage,  weights,  and  measures. 


891-'95. 

1899. 

262.7 

308.7 

279.4 

374.1 

CHAPTEE  XLIII 

NEW  ZEALAND 

New  Zealand  is  a  striking  example  of  successful  coloniza- 
tion (Fig.  153).  Somewhat  smaller  than  Italy,  and  with  a 
population  of  less  than  800,000,  it  has  over  11,000,000  acres 
of  land  under  cultivation.  Twenty  million  sheep  supply 
European  countries  with  wool  and  mutton,  and  250  butter 
and  cheese  factories  send  their  products  10,000  miles  to 
market.  Fine  forests,  rich  coal  fields,  and  gold  mines  also 
abound.  The  prosperous  inhabitants  sell  every  year  over 
$50,000,000  of  their  products  to  other  countries. 

The  warm  and  constant  westerly  winds,  "roaring  for- 
ties," give  the  islands  a  mild  and  equable  climate.  As  they 
deposit  most  of  their  moisture  on  the  lofty  mountains  of 
the  west  coast  there  is  not  too  much  rainfall  for  sheep 
pasturage  on  the  plains  of  the  east,  though  sufficient  for 
the  best  farming. 

The  east  side  of  New  Zealand  is  most  important  for 
grazing,  farming,  and  commerce ;  the  west  side  for  forest 
industries.  There  are  no  important  harbors  on  the  moun- 
tainous west  coast.  The  east  coast  has  four  fine  harbors, 
two  on  each  island,  besides  others  of  importance  in  the 
coasting  trade.  Port  Chalmers,  the  harbor  for  large  vessels 
of  Dunedin,  has  both  water  and  rail  connections  witli  tliat 
city,  which  itself  accommodates  steamers  of  eigliteen  feet 
draft.  Dunedin,  the  outlet  for  the  gold  mines  in  the 
river  valleys  among  the  mountains,  is  a  very  busy  city, 
whose  woolen,  machinery,  and  other  manufactures  have 
been  stimulated  by  the  coal  on  both  sides  of  it.     Lyttelton 

445 


446 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


(Fig.  18),  the  port  of  Christchurch,  the  second  largest  city, 
is  a  commodious  and  busy  harbor,  its  prosperity  being  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  stands 
on  the  rich  Canterbury 
Plain,  where  the  largest 
agriculture  and  sheep- 
growing  are  centered. 
This  plain,  about  160 
miles  long  and  30  miles 
wide,  has  a  compara- 
tively dense  population, 
whose  commercial  in- 
terests are  centered  at 
Christchurch. 
.  Besides  the  Can 
terbury  Plain, 
there  are  other 
plains  in  both 
islands  that 
widen  the 
area  of  ^  ^° 
stock 
rais 


mg 
and 
agricul- 
ture. 
The  chief 
ports  of  the 
North  Island  are 
Wellington,  the 
capital  of  New  Zea- 
land, having  regular 
communications  with 
Australia ;  and  Auckland, 
the  largest  city  of  the  colony, 
which  is  a  port  of  call  for 
steamships  in  the  American- 
Australian  trade.  Among  the  smaller  ports  Oamaru  is 
important  as  an  outlet  for  the  wheat  region,  and  Timaru 
for  frozen  meat. 


Fig.  153.— Now  Zealand. 


NEW  ZEALAND  447 

Sheep-raising  is  the  chief  industry.  Animals  and  their 
products  are  more  than  three  fifths  of  the  exports,  wool  is 
nearly  two  fifths,  the  business  of  freezing  and  exporting 
mutton  and  beef  being  also  very  large.  Nearly  all  the  by- 
products— bones  and  bone  ash,  hides,  hair,  hoofs,  horns,  and 
some  of  the  leather — are  exported,  and  the  waste  is  con- 
verted into  fertilizers.  New  Zealand  mutton  is  regarded 
as  the  best  that  is  sent  to  England.  Cattle  are  of  subor- 
dinate importance  as  compared  with  sheep,  though  some 
frozen  beef,  and  enormous  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese, 
of  excellent  quality,  are  exported.  The  dairy  products  are 
made  in  factories  on  the  co-operative  plan,  as  in  Denmark, 
insuring  an  output  of  a  high  and  uniform  grade. 

Agriculture  is  next  in  importance.  Wheat  and  oats  are  the 
principal  crops,  thriving  best  in  the  South  Island,  though 
also  grown  in  the  North  Island.  Wheat  and  flour  are  consid- 
erable exports.  As  all  the  pasture  lands  are  sown  with  English 
grasses  the  sale  of  grass  seeds  to  Australia  yields  a  substan- 
tial income.    Fine  apples  and  peaches  are  among  the  fruits. 

One  of  the  characteristic  products  is  New  Zealand  flax, 
or  phormium  (p.  103),  growing  wild  in  the  valley  of  the 
Waikato  River,  the  exports  varying  according  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  marshes,  due  to  the  river's  overflow,  in  which 
the  plant  grows.  Another  distinctive  product  of  the  North 
Island  is  the  tall  kauri  pine,  yielding  not  only  fine  timber, 
but  also  the  kauri  gum  of  commerce.  The  chief  supplies 
of  the  gum  which  is  used  in  making  varnish  (exported  to 
the  value  of  about  12,000,000  a  year),  come  from  the  fossil 
stores  dug  from  the  soil  in  which  kauri  forests  once  grew, 
some  of  the  masses  of  gum  weighing  100  pounds  each. 
Native  barks  are  employed  in  the  important  tanning  in- 
dustry, tanekaka  bark  being  also  exported  to  France  for 
dyeing  kid  gloves.  The  other  forest  resources  are  very 
valuable,  the  colony  manufacturing  its  own  lumljcr. 

Coal  and  gold  are  the  only  important  minerals.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  iiiine.s  is  shown  in  Fig.  15:}.     Practically  uU  the 


448  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

gold,  to  the  amount  of  about  15,000,000  a  year,  is  exported, 
most  of  it  being  found  in  proximity  to  the  coal.  The  coal 
mined,  about  800,000  tons  annually,  is  not  sufficient  for 
home  uses,  and  is  supplemented  by  imports  from  Xew  South 
Wales.  Coal-mining  is  increasing,  and  may  yet  supply  the 
local  demand.  The  coal  of  the  northwest  part  of  South 
Island  is  shipped  from  Westport  and  Greymouth  to  other 
districts  in  the  colony.  The  coal  of  the  southeast  is  con- 
veniently situated  for  shipment  by  rail. 

Manufactures  are  growing.  Industrial  development  is 
stimulated  by  the  supply  of  good  coal  near  at  hand.  Wool- 
scouring  and  meat-preserving  give  employment  to  many 
persons.  Other  industries  supply  wholly  or  in  part  the  de- 
mand for  boots  and  shoes,  woolen  goods,  brick,  tile,  furni- 
ture, lumber,  beer,  flour,  and  foundry  iron.  The  distillation 
of  spirituous  liquors  is  prohibited.  Considerable  machinery 
is  made,    Most  manufactures  are  protected  by  a  high  tariff. 

Three  fourths  of  the  trade  is  with  Great  Britain;  most 
of  the  remainder  is  with  Australia,  India,  and  Fiji.  The 
trade  with  the  United  States  is  about  one  sixteenth  of  the 
total  foreign  commerce.  The  largest  imports  are  clothing 
and  textiles,  iron  and  steel  goods,  paper  and  stationery, 
sugar,  and  spirits.  The  leading  exports  are  wool,  frozen 
meat,  gold,  butter  and  cheese,  kauri  gum,  grain,  flour,  and 
tallow. 

STATISTICS  FOR  NEW  ZEALAND 

Average  Annual  Trade  (in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-85.  1891--95.  18M. 

Imports 39.1  32.8  42.5 

Exports 38.7  46.1  58.0 

Population  (1898),  791,717. 

British  coinage,  weights,  and  measures. 


CHAPTER   XLIV 

OCEANIA 

The  island  groups  of  the  Pacific  have  a  growing  trade 
with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Their  commercial  development, 
though  still  small,  except  in  the  territory  of  Hawaii  (pp. 
170-173),  has  been  stimulated  by  the  fact  that  they  have 
all  come  under  the  dominion  of  various  European  powers 
and  the  United  States,  so  that  more  white  traders  and 
planters  are  settling  in  them.  They  have  tropical  and  some 
mineral  products  of  much  value  in  the  world's  markets,  be- 
sides food  plants  of  especial  importance  in  the  nourishment 
of  the  islanders.* 

*  Observe  the  wide  range  (Fig.  35)  around  the  world,  on  both  sides 
of  the  equator,  of  the  cocoanut  palm.  The  lines  bounding  its  habitat, 
north  and  south,  are  not  extended  across  the  continents,  because  this 
palm  loves  the  sea  and  does  not  thrive  far  from  it.  It  fringes  all  the 
tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific,  where  it  is  found  in  its  greatest  perfec- 
tion. The  nut  is  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  millions  of  people  in  the 
Ea?t  Indies  and  the  Pacific  ;  from  it  and  other  products  of  the  tree 
they  make  tlieir  dwellings,  boats,  mattresses,  and  fertilizers  for  their 
fields.  The  Tahiti  and  Marshall  groups  alone  send  about  1,000,000 
nuts  a  year  to  San  Francisco.  Most  of  the  imports  are  desiccated, 
shredded,  and  sold  to  bakers  and  confectioners.  Copra  is  the  meat 
of  the  cocoaimt,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  sent  chiefly  to  Marseilles,  but 
also  to  Liverpool,  San  Francisco,  and  other  ports,  where  the  oil  is 
expressed  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  common  and  medium-grade 
soaps.  About  8,000  nuts  make  a  ton  of  copra.  Breadfruit  is  the  fruit 
of  a  tree  of  the  nettle  family,  and  a  large  article  of  food  in  the  South 
Seas  (Fig.  43).  When  roasted  it  has  some  similarity  to  fresh  bread. 
Fig.  43  also  shows  the  habitat  of  the  sago  palm  and  the  banana.  Sago 
is  a  farinaceous  food  prepared  from  the  soft  inner  portion  of  the  sago 
29  449 


450  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  largest  island  of  Melanesia  is  New  Guinea.*  It  is 
the  second  largest  island  in  the  world.  Its  development  is 
only  Just  beginning.  Europeans  are  working  the  alluvial 
gold  deposits  in  British  New  Guinea ;  the  pearl  and  pearl- 
shell  fisheries  and  beche-de-mer  are  also  important  in  trade, 
which  is  mostly  with  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales, 
and  amounts  to  about  1500,000  a  year.  German  New  Guinea 
(Kaiser  Wilhelms  Land)  has  cotton  and  tobacco  plantations, 
opened  by  the  German  New  Guinea  Company,  the  product 
being  sent  to  Bremen.  Laborers  are  brought  from  Java 
and  China  to  work  these  plantations,  as  the  natives  have 
not  yet  been  induced  to  labor.  A  number  of  trading  sta- 
tions on  the  coasts  of  Dutch  New  Guinea  are  visited  by 
vessels  to  collect  their  stores  of  beche-de-mer,  nutmegs, 
tortoise  and  pearl  shell,  and  birds-of-paradise  feathers. 
New  Guinea  is  one  of  the  least  known  parts  of  the  world ; 
little  use  is  yet  made  of  its  varied  resources. 

New  Caledonia,  whose  development  is  retarded  by  its 
being  a  French  penal  colony,  is  exceptionally  rich  in  min- 
erals and  metals.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  supply 
of  nickel  and  cobalt.  Coffee  is  also  exported.  Noumea, 
the  capital,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  cable  and  steamship 
connections  with  the  rest  of  the  world  (Figs.  1,  6). 

The  New  Hebrides  (French)  have  a  considerable  trade 
in  fish,  copra,  pearl  and  tortoise  shell,  beche-de-mer,  and 
bananas,  French  and  Australian  syndicates  controlling  the 
business.  The  islands  have  long  been  an  important  source 
of  native  labor  (kanakas)  imported  to  Queensland  for  the 
sugar  plantations. 

The  Solomon  islands  (German  in  the  north,  British  in 
the  south)  give  great  opportunity  for  the  copra  industry. 

palm,  and  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  in  the  hundreds  of  islands  where  it 
grows.  It  is  used  in  countries  that  import  it  as  a  table  delicacy  "i' 
dessert.  The  banana  is  most  largely  used  as  food  in  tropical  Afrira. 
where  it  is  the  main  support  of  millions  of  people. 

*  Refer  to  Fig.  20  for  this  chapter,  unless  otherwise  directed. 


OCEANIA  451 

British  firms  engaged  in  copra  drying  send  their  product 
in  small  vessels  to  central  stations  to  await  the  arrival  of  a 
ship  from  Sydney.     These  islands  are  still  little  known. 

The  Fiji  Islands  are  the  most  thriving  colony  among  the 
South  Pacific  groups.  Sandalwood  first  attracted  traders  to 
the  islands  early  in  the  last  century.  Eleven  hundred 
miles  from  New  Zealand  and  2,000  from  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, close  trade  relations  are  maintained  with  those 
countries.  Sugar,  copra,  and  fruit,  chiefly  bananas,  are 
the  most  important  export  products.  The  sugar  interests, 
largely  in  the  hands  of  one  company,  extend  over  a  number 
of  the  islands,  and  supply  all  the  home  demand  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  exports.  Copra  is  next  in  importance. 
Bananas,  among  the  finest  in  the  world,  are  sent  to  New 
Zealand  and  Australian  markets.  Two  to  three  crops  of 
maize  are  annually  harvested.  The  natives  make  good 
plantation  hands,  but  the  demand  for  labor  exceeding  the 
sujjply,  many  coolies  from  India  have  been  brought  into 
the  country.  Suva,  the  capital,  and  Levuka  have  good 
harbors,  and  are  both  commercially  important.  The  ex- 
ports exceed  the  imports,  which  consist  of  cotton  goods, 
machinery,  hardware,  and  foodstufl's.  The  trade  is  almost 
entirely  with  the  Australasian  colonies  and  the  United 
Kingdom.* 

The  Samoan  group  is  a  German  possession,  excepting 
Tutuila  and  the  little  Manua  islands,  which  belong  to  the 
United  States  (p.  173).  German  planters  have  long  had 
the  largest  interests  in  the  islands.  There  are  no  liabita- 
tions  more  than  four  miles  from  the  coasts.  Kanaka  labor 
is  imported  from  other  islands,  as  the  Samoans  will  not 
work  on  the  plantations.  Copra  is  the  largest  export,  cacao, 
bananas,  pineapples,  and  limes  being  also  sold.  Clotliing, 
provisions,  and  kerosene  are  the  chief  imports.  The  trade 
is   chiefly  with   the  Australasian   colonies,   Germany,  the 


*  Imports  (1898),  $1,200,000 ;  exports,  $2,420,000. 


452  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

United  States,  and  Great  Britain.  Apia,  noted  for  its  de- 
structive hurricanes,  and  Pago-Pago  (U.  S.)  are  the  best 
harbors. 

The  Friendly  Islands  (Tonga  group),  the  last  to  be 
placed  under  the  protection  of  a  foreign  power  (British), 
are  between  Fiji  and  Samoa,  and  have  a  very  small  foreign 
trade.  They  sell  most  of  their  copra  to  Germany,  and  buy 
their  cloth  and  foodstuffs  in  Xew  Zealand. 

The  Society  Isla'nds  (Tahiti),  east  of  Samoa,  belong  to 
France,  but  nearly  half  of  the  total  trade  is  with  the  United 
States,  San  Francisco  being  the  nearest  market  in  which  to 
buy  flour  and  textiles,  and  having  frequent  communications 
with  the  group.  Copra,  vanilla,  and  mother-of-pearl  are 
the  chief  exports. 

The  Marshall  Islands  export  copra  and  cocoanuts,  most 
of  the  business  being  in  the  hands  of  the  Jaluit  Company. 
The  Caroline  Islands,  recently  ceded  with  the  Ladrones  by 
Spain  to  Germany,  are  an  extensive  archipelago  of  small 
islands,  with  considerable  trade  in  copra. 

This  brief  survey  of  the  more  important  Pacific  groups 
shows  that  their  principal  export  is  copra.  The  total  trade 
of  all  of  them  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  Hawaiian  group 
(p.  181),  which  has  the  advantage  of  a  cooler  climate  and 
high  civilization.  The  resources  of  these  islands  are  very 
great,  though  as  yet  little  use  has  been  made  of  them. 


•' 


1 


Railroads  completed 
"  building 

"  propoHcd 

Cape  Town-Cairo  R.R. 

Navigable  Rivers 
"  Ixikes 

Steamship  Routes 

Camel  Caravan  Routes 


0   50  100      «00 


fiipp  T< 


30 


Longitude         20 


10  Co/  Good 


Fig.  154.— Africa,  beins  very  regular  in  ontline.  has  few  good  harbors,  and  only  one.  Lorer 
abruptly  to  the  coastal  plain,  the  rivers  are  interrupted  by  rapids  alons  the  edsres  of  the 
are  an  impediment  to  commerce.  The  only  very  important  reaches  of  unbroken  navigai 
therefore  most  essential  to  development.  "Esypt.  Tunis.  Algeria,  and  South  Africa  ha\ 
from  the  coasts  to  the  inland  resions  :  also  the  route  of  the  partly  completed  transcont.:' 
hara.  connectintr  the  Sudan  with  the  :Mediterranean  :  also  the  numerous  larsre  and  sma 
has  stations  at  many  ports  from  Port  Said  to  Cape  Town.    The  west  coast  cable  line  ex 


jnez.  of  the  first  class.  Most  of  the  oontinfnt  hcitii;  a  high  table-land  dosccndiiifr  rather 
itean.  so  that  none  of  them  is  easily  navii;iil)le  from  the  sen  to  the  far  interior.  These  facts 
1  the  sea  are  on  the  Nile  and  on  the  Niser  and  its  Benue  tributary  to  Yola.  Kailroads  are 
Ivaneed  railroad  systems.  The;  map  shows  many  lines  completed,  in  pro;;resB,  or  i)rojeeted, 
le  from  Cape  Town  to  Alexandria.  Observe  the  many  camel-caravan  routes  across  the  Sa- 
vvhich  are  terminal  or  calliuK  ports  for  many  steamship  lines.  The  east  coast  cable  line 
1  far  south  as  S.  Paolo  de  Loanda.    All  ihe  towns  on  the  map  are  important  in  domestic  or 


CHAPTEE  XLV 

EGYPT  AND  NORTH  AFRICA 

The  Nile  gives  life  and  commercial  value  to  Egypt.  Ex- 
cluding its  enormous  deserts,  Egypt  has  an  area  only  as 
large  as  Xew  Hampshire,  enriched  by  mud  which  the  annual 
floods  of  the  Xile  spread  over  it.  About  9,000,000  people 
are  densely  distributed  over  the  Nile  delta  and  the  river 
banks,  which  in  the  summer  season  benefit  by  the  floods. 
The  White  Nile  (Fig.  154)  swells  their  volume,  but  the 
Blue  Xile  and  the  iVtbara,  north  of  it,  bring  the  fertilizing 
silt  from  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia.*  Though  tributary 
to  Turkey,  British  influence — paramount  in  Egypt — has 
contributed  much  to  its  recent  rapid  progress. 

Three  fifths  of  the  population  are  farmers.  Though  the 
climate  is  warm,  temperate  as  well  as  subtropical  crops  are 
raised.  Cotton  is  the  great  export  crop,  being  about  three 
fourths  of  all  the  exports.  A  French  botanist,  in  1821, 
found  a  few  plants  growing  wild  in  Cairo,  with  a  long 
staple  fiber,  which  he  recognized  as  cotton  of  exceptionally 
fine  quality.  The  result  of  this  discovery  was  the  develop- 
ment of  cotton-planting,  which  was  rapidly  extended  as 
manufacturing  countries  came  to  know  the  merits  of  the 

*  A  very  large  dam  is  building  (1901)  across  the  Nile,  at  Assuan,  to 
impound  a  part  of  the  flood  waters  that  run  to  waste  in  the  months  of 
inundation.  This  surplus  water  will  he  reserved  for  the  months  of  the 
low  Xile  (our  winter  months),  and  will  then  be  turned  into  the  irriga- 
tion canals ;  thus  the  fields  that  may  be  irrigated  the  year  round  will 
be  widely  extended. 

453 


454  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

fiber.  Most  of  it  is  raised  in  the  delta,  but  the  region 
south  of  Cairo  also  produces  a  considerable  quantity.  Prac- 
tically the  entire  crop,  about  one  tenth  as  large  as  that  of 
the  United  States  (Fig.  52),  is  exported,  finding  a  quick 
market,  at  good  prices,  in  the  United  States  (p.  95)  and 
in  the  leading  countries  of  Europe.  Half  of  it  is  sold  to 
England.     Marseilles  buys  most  of  the  cotton  seed. 

Cereals  and  vegetables  are  nearly  a  fifth  of  the  exports. 
Rice  thrives  in  the  delta ;  wheat  is  a  still  larger  crop,  occu- 
pying a  third  of  the  delta  and  half  of  the  farm  lands  south 
of  it ;  maize  is  also  one  of  the  large  food  crops.  Much 
rice  is  imported,  but  surplus  wheat  and  maize  are  sent  . 
to  Europe,  as  are  beans,  used  in  England  as  horse  feed. 
Cane  sugar  is  sent  refined  to  the  markets  of  the  Levant, 
where  it  competes  with  other  sugars.  Tobacco  is  one  of 
the  largest  agricultural  imports.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco 
in  Egypt  was  prohibited  in  1890,  because  some  manufac- 
turers of  the  famous  Egyptian  cigarettes  were  mixing  in- 
ferior home  tobacco  with  imported  Turkish  leaf,  thereby 
imperiling  the  foreign  trade — a  source  of  large  Government 
revenue  through  the  export  tax.*  Egyptian  onions  have  a 
prominent  part  in  trade,  going  to  the  United  States  as  well 
as  to  several  European  countries. 

Sheep  and  goats,  supplying  skins,  are  a  source  of  wealth, 
but  the  imports  of  animal  products  are  much  larger  than  . 
the  exports.  As  industries  have  small  development,  tex-  i 
tiles  (more  than  a  fourth  of  the  whole  imports),  hardware 
and  machinery,  glass,  chemicals,  and  other  manufactures 
are  large  imports.  As  Egypt  has  no  timber,  Scandinavia, 
Hungary,  and  other  countries  supply  a  large  amount  of 
lumber,  and  England  sends  coal.     The  magnitude  of  the 

*  Most  of  the  genuine  "  Egyptian  "  cigarettes  in  the  export  trade 
are  made  in  Cairo  by  Grecian  workmen,  using  Turkish  tobacco  and 
paper  manufactured  in  Germany,  Austria,  or  Italy.  Many  of  the 
cigarettes  consumed  in  the  country  are  made  of  cheaper  tobacco  liy 
native  workmen. 


EGYPT  AND  NORTH  AFRICA  455 

cotton  exports,  however,  almost  invariably  turn  the  balance 
of  trade  in  favor  of  Egypt.  Our  purchases  of  Egyptian 
cotton  are  worth  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  our  sales  to 
that  country.* 

Tripoli  has  the  largest  caravan  trade  with  the  Sudan, 
Its  coast  line  being  nearer  to  the  Sudan  than  any  other 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  littoral,  and  wells  being  most 
numerous  along  the  western  desert  routes,  Tripoli  has  the 
best  advantages  for  caravan  trade.  Several  great  caravans, 
numbering  as  many  as  9,000  camels,  cross  the  desert  every 
year  to  Lake  Chad  and  Timbuktu  (Fig.  154),  carrying  tex- 
tiles from  England,  weapons,  tools,  and  hardware  from 
Germany,  glassware  from  Italy,  and  sugar  and  many  small 
articles  from  France.  They  return  with  ostrich  feathers, 
ivory,  gold  dust,  tanned  hides,  and  some  slaves — a  traffic  now 
prohibited,  but  surreptitiously  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
Most  of  Tripoli  is  a  sandy  waste,  interspersed  with  fertile 
oases,  producing  dates.  The  imports  are  manufactures, 
many  of  them  purchased  for  barter  in  the  Sudan  and  desert 
trade.  The  exports  include  commodities  from  the  Sudan; 
esparto,  the  largest  export,  growing  on  the  moorlands  of 
the  coast ;  sponges,  from  the  rich  fisheries  along  the  coast ; 
barley,  the  most  important  cereal ;  madder,  for  dyeing ; 
henna  leaves,  used  in  cosmetic  preparations ;  eggs,  sent  in 

*  Fig.  154  shows  the  most  important  railroad  connection  between 
the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Nile.  A  network  of  railroads  covers  the  delta. 
The  Nile  Railroad  has  been  extended  to  Khartum,  the  capital  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan,  ruined  by  the  Mahdist  tyranny.  Khartum  was  for- 
merly the  trade  center  between  Cairo,  Suakin,  and  the  upper  Nile 
regions.  Its  favorable  position  will  again  make  the  rebuilt  city  impor- 
tant in  trade.  Alexandria,  the  largest  port  and  commercial  city,  has  a 
movement  of  over  2.000,000  tons  a  year— about  one  fifth  as  much  as 
passes  through  the  Suez  Canal.  Cairo,  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  at 
the  junction  of  the  delta  and  the  valley,  is  the  political  center,  the 
seat  of  the  tobacco  industry,  and  derives  large  profit  from  the  winter 
tourist  traffic.  Suakin  is  a  Red  Sea  forwarding  port,  connected  with 
the  upper  Nile  by  camel  caravan. 


456  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

large  numbers  to  Malta ;  and  a  few  horses  and  cattle  of  the 
littoral.  As  the  city  of  Tripoli  has  a  fair  harbor,  the  cara- 
van routes  converge  there.  Turkish  influences  prevail,  and 
Tripoli  is  far  behind  the  neighboring  countries. 

Algeria  is  the  most  important  colony  of  France  (Fig.  155). 
The  political  and  business  relations  of  the  mother  country 
with  Algiers  are  very  close,  the  colony's  senators  and  depu- 
ties having  an  equal  voice  with  those  of  France  in  parlia- 
ment, and  over  five  sixths  of  the  exterior  trade  being  with 
France.  It  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country  and 
a  prosperous  colony,  though  it  suffers  from  droughts  and 
the  lack  of  navigable  rivers.  Algeria  is  France's  mainstay 
for  all  kinds  of  early  vegetables,  including  enormous  quan- 
tities of  potatoes,  which  are  carried  on  fast  steamers  to 
Marseilles.  The  green  produce,  leaving  Algiers  at  noon, 
is  unloaded  at  Marseilles  in  the  afternoon  of  the  next  day, 
starts  on  the  evening  trains  for  Lyons  and  Paris,  and  is  for 
sale  in  the  Paris  markets  from  35  to  40  hours  after  leaving 
Africa.  Tobacco  is  one  of  the  most  remunerative  crops, 
France's  imports  from  Hungary  and  other  countries  having 
been  largely  reduced  since  Algeria  became  a  source  of  sup- 
ply. A  part  of  the  wheat  and  barley  harvest  is  exported, 
the  wheat  being  particularly  rich  in  gluten,  and  therefore 
desired  by  makers  of  alimentary  pastes.  Flax  succeeds 
well,  but  is  a  minor  industry.  Olives  and  oil  seeds  are 
large  crops,  very  convenient  to  the  Marseilles  market,  the 
largest  buyer  of  these  commodities. 

Algeria  is  one  of  the  greatest  wine  producers,  the  vine 
thriving  everywhere.  France  buys  the  large  variety  of 
wines  exported,  mixing  them  with  French  wines.  Large 
cork  forests  supply  much  of  the  cork  of  commerce.  Millions 
of  sheep  and  goats  find  ample  pasturage  on  the  high  pla- 
teaus of  the  south,  and  exports  of  wool  and  skins  are  large. 
Esparto  is  a  great  natural  resource,  to  be  had  for  the  gath- 
ering. The  oases  on  the  edge  of  the  Sahara,  with  their 
groves  of  date  palms,  watered  from  artesian  wells,  make 


C:.-7?.  Gram  and  cuUivateJ  tandJ.       3i    ^    ^ 
Cnnil  Sandy  DeseH.  „        --to^ 


Fig.  155. — Algeria  and  Tunis. 
Algeria.— Algiers,  the  capital  and  chief  port,  has  a  fine  artificial  harbor  (Fig.  12),  the 
fastest  steamship  connections  with  Marseilles,  and  exports  more  vegetables,  to- 
bacco, flax,  wine,  and  sheep  than  any  other  port.  Its  great  commercial  advan- 
tages are  its  central  position  on  the  coast  and  the  shortest  sea  route  to  Mar- 
seilles. Oran.  with  two  thirds  as  much  foreign  trade  as  Algiers,  leads  in  ex- 
ports of  esparto,  tanning  barks,  and  cereals.  Philippevllle  and  Bona,  in  the  east, 
with  nearly  as  much  trade  together  as  that  of  Algiers,  export  half  of  the  wool, 
fish,  and  fresh  and  dried  fruits,  and  the  larger  part  of  the  olive  oil  and  cork  wood. 
Mostaganem,  near  Oran,  though  an  open  roadstead,  has  considerable  trade.  Beni 
Saf  is  the  port  for  the  rich  iron  ores  of  the  northwest.  The  Tell  and  littoral,  the 
rich  cultivated  strip  between  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the  coast,  are  covered  with 
agricultural  villages,  and  yield  the  wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  olives,  grapes,  and 
other  fruits  forming  a  large  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  country.  The  Tell  extends 
from  ,50  to  1.50  miles  inland.  Only  the  finest  forest  areas  are  shown  on  this  map; 
they  are  mainly  on  the  slopes  of  the  Atlas.  The  vast  area  included  between 
broken  lines  shows  the  high  drier  regions,  where  esparto  (alfa)  grows  wild.  It  is 
exported  mainly  to  French  paper  mills  and  England,  but  would  supply  a  large 
part  of  the  paper  stock  of  the  world  if  wood  pulp  were  not  generally  in  nse. 
Sheep  and  goats  in  great  numbers  graze  on  the  succulent  herbs  of  this  region, 
supplying  the  wool  and  skins  that  are  important  in  the  exports.  On  the  edge  of 
the  desert,  reached  by  the  railroad  at  Biskra,  are  irrigated  oases  growing  millions 
of  date  palms. 

Tunis.— The  Tell,  with  its  characteristic  products,  extends  through  the  north 
part  of  Tunis.  The  French  have  cut  a  deep  channel  through  the  salt  lake  between 
Goletta  and  Tunis,  the  capital,  making  Tunis  a  maritime  port.  Bizerta  is  also  an 
important  port  and  a  French  naval  station.  Susa  and  Sfax,  on  the  east  coast,  ex- 
port esparto  and  cork.  A  railroad  has  been  built  (1900)  between  Sfax  and  Gafsa 
to  the  rich  phosi)hate  beds  extending  into  Algeria,  making  that  region  the  largest 
source  of  phosphate,  excepting  our  southeastern  states. 

457 


458  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Algeria  one  of  the  leading  exporters  of  dates.*  Iron  ore, 
found  in  the  northwest,  is  sent  to  France  ;  extensive  phos- 
phate beds  in  the  southeast  are  as  yet  little  developed. 

Algeria  is  tributary  to  France  for  nearly  all  its  manu- 
factures. The  Arabs  make  cloths,  carpets,  and  jewelry  that 
have  considerable  foreign  sale.  Along  the  coast  and  in  the 
Tell  are  flour  mills,  oil  refineries,  factories  for  making 
alimentary  pastes,  sardine  canneries,  and  cork-working 
establishments.  As  the  colony  lacks  coal,  it  can  not  advan- 
tageously attempt  the  manufacture  of  many  articles  that 
may  cheaply  be  procured  from  France. 

The  exterior  trade  has  been  almost  steadily  increasing 
for  many  years,  with  the  development  of  agriculture  and 
stock-raising,  under  the  French  regime.  The  largest  ex- 
ports are  tobacco,  cereals,  esparto,  wine,  iron  ore,  cork, 
and  vegetables.  The  most  important  imports  are  gen- 
eral manufactures,  coal,  and  colonial  products  (coffee,  tea, 
and  spices).  The  United  States  has  very  little  share  in 
the  trade. 

Tunis  has  made  great  progress  under  the  French  protector- 
ate. Twenty  years  ago,  under  the  Turkish  regime,  life  and 
property  were  insecure,  there  were  no  roads,  and  Tunis,  the 
capital,  could  not  be  reached  by  ocean  vessels.  It  is  now 
safe  to  engage  in  enterprises  and  to  accumulate  property ; 
all  towns  are  connected  by  roads ;  railroads  have  been 
built.  Tunis  is  a  seaport,  and  agriculture,  the  largest  inter- 
est, has  developed.  Physically,  Tunis  is  a  prolongation  of 
Algeria  to  the  east  (Fig.  155).     The  soil  of  the  Tell  is  rich, 

*  The  date  (Fig.  43)  is  a  very  large  product  of  North  Africa,  Arabia, 
and  Persia,  where  it  is  a  leading  article  of  food.  It  is  grown  successfully 
in  California.  Biskra  is  the  great  market  in  Algeria,  the  fruit  from 
several  oases  being  sent  there  to  be  packed.  Some  varieties  are  sent  to 
Europe  and  America  for  eating  or  sirups,  and  others  are  retained  for 
the  food  supply  of  the  Arabs.  The  export  crop  is  purchased  by  whole- 
sale buyers  at  Biskra  and  shipped  to  Marseilles,  where  it  is  reinspected 
and  repacked  for  the  trade. 


EGYPT   AND   NORTH  AFRICA  459 

producing  cereals,  olive  oil,  and  wine  for  export.  The  olive 
oil  of  the  Tell  and  the  dates  of  the  oases  are  regarded  as 
the  best  in  the  world.  Esparto  is  gathered  on  the  southern 
plateaus.  The  fisheries  are  particularly  rich,  and  the  yield 
of  sponges  is  important.  Carpet-weaving  is  the  only  con- 
siderable industry.  Three  fifths  of  the  trade  is  with  France 
and  Algeria,  England  and  Malta  having  an  eighth  of  it  and 
Italy  a  tenth. 

Commerce  has  little  development  in  Morocco  (Fig.  154). 
Its  stagnant,  poverty-stricken  condition  is  due  to  mis- 
government  from  the  time  the  Moors  were  expelled  from 
Spain.  Morocco  is  still  steeped  in  barbarism,  though  it  is 
nearer  to  Europe  than  any  other  part  of  Africa.  With  a 
fine  climate,  good  soil,  and  great  natural  riches,  it  is  gov- 
erned by  an  absolute  sultan,  its  people  are  fanatical  Mo- 
hammedans, and  white  men  are  not  safe  in  most  parts  of 
the  land.  Very  little  European  influence  has  been  used  to 
improve  these  conditions.*  There  are  no  railroads,  no  roads 
except  mule  and  camel  paths.  Mining  is  absolutely  pro- 
hibited. Tangier,  Mogador,  and  a 'few  smaller  ports  are 
open  to  foreign  trade,  which  is  very  small  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  and  value  of  the  country.  The  city  of  Morocco 
has  caravan  communications  with  Timbuktu  on  the  Xiger, 
bringing  from  the  Sudan  ivory,  gold  dust,  and  ostrich 
feathers,  besides  large  quantities  of  dates  from  an  oasis 
.  in  the  Tafilet  district  of  the  Sahara.  The  imports  are  cot- 
tons, silks,  hardware,  candles,  and  petroleum.  The  chief 
exports  are  beans,  cattle,  wool,  goatskins,  eggs,  and  wax. 
England  sends  about  three  fifths  of  the  imports  and  takes 
a  fourth  of  the  exports.     Petroleum  is  the  American  prod- 

N — — 

*  Morocco  is  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  political  jealousy  some- 
times retards  commercial  development.  None  of  the  preat  European 
powers  is  willing  that  any  of  its  rivals  should  pain  political  or  commer- 
cial ascendency  in  Morocco.  That  country,  therefore,  has  been  let 
alone,  while  enterprises  have  been  pushed,  by  uU  means,  in  other 
lands. 


S91-'95. 

1899. 

45.0 

56.6 

G3.5 

75.9 

460  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

uct  most  used.     Goatskins  are  the  only  considerable  export 
to  this  country.* 

STATISTICS  FOR  NORTH  AFRICA 

Egypt 

Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Ilillion  Dollars) 

1881-'85. 

Imports   '.  .     40.0 

Exports  61.0 

Population  (Lower  and  Upper  Egypt,  1897),  9,755,295. 
Gold  is  the  monetary  standard,  with  the  pound  (100 
piasters,  worth    $4.94i^)    as   the   unit   of   coinage.     Metric 
weights   and   measures,  but  local  denominations  also  em- 
ployed. 

Tripoli 

Imports.  Exports. 

Trade  in  1899 $1,873,100  |1.997,700 

Population  (estimated),  1,000,000. 

Algeria 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1881-'85.  1891--95.  1899. 

Imports 62.0  46.0  65.8 

Exports 29.5  51.0  66.7 

Population  (J 896),  4,479,421. 

French  coinage,  weights,  and  measures. 

Tunis 
Average  Annual  Trade  {in  Million  Dollars) 

1896-'9r.  1898. 

Imports 9.2  10.3 

Exports 7.1  8.5 

Population  (estimated),  1,500,000. 

*  Gibraltar,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  Malta,  between  Sicily  and  Africa,  are  military  and  naval  sta- 
tions of  Great  Britain,  maintained  to  secure  the  route  through  the 
Mediterranean  to  India,  and  important  also  as  coaling  stations. 


CHAPTEE   XLVI 

TROPICAL     AFRICA 

Underground  waters  give  commercial  value  to  the  Sahara 

(Fig.  154).  This  greatest  desert  in  the  world,  four  fifths  as 
large  as  the  United  States,  is  a  barren  waste  simply  because 
the  drying  winds  from  south  Europe  bring  very  little  rain. 
The  soil  lacks  no  element  of  fertility  save  moisture.  Only 
one  river,  the  Nile,  crosses  the  desert,  which  is  turned  into 
a  garden  along  the  great  waterway.  The  Sahara,  however, 
does  not  lack  underground  water  courses ;  wherever  they 
come  to  light  in  natural  depressions  (wells),  or  are  reached 
by  boring,  the  surrounding  lands  are  turned  into  oases ; 
date  palms  and  cereals  are  raised,  and  thus  food  is  pro- 
vided for  thousands  of  persons.  Without  these  oases  the 
present  desert  traflic  could  not  exist,  nor  could  there  be 
the  commercial  highways  across  the  desert  indicated  in 
Fig.  154. 

The  desert  gradually  merges  in  the  fertile  lands  of  the 
Sudan,  across  the  northern  half  of  which  is  a  region  of  date 
palms  and  subtropical  cereals  (Fig.  156).  This  is  a  region 
of  comparatively  dense  population,  a  mixture  of  Hamitic, 
Semitic,  and  Xegro  peoples  (Fig.  19),  many  of  whom  are 
clad  in  the  cotton  cloths  which  they  manufacture  or  buy 
from  the  caravans  and  are  also  skilled  in  leather  work  and 
other  industries.  They  have  many  horses  and  cattle,  and 
important  trade  among  themselves.  They  are  now  under 
British  and  French  dominion.  Though  fanatical  Moham- 
medans, they  are  yielding,  particularly  in  the  Lake  Tchad 

461 


462 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


region,  to  Euroi3ean  influence,  and  trade  with  them  prom- 
ises to  become  important. 

South  of  this  region  is  a  broad  belt,  distinguished  in 
Fig.  156  as  a  land  of  cotton,  maize,  and  tropical  millet. 


CoJ^cc,  Tropical)  Ccrcdla^  Baiiana 
Cation,  Maize.iBns^al  JlfiZZe* 
I  I  DaU  Palm,  Subtropical  Cereal 

I  I  Olive,  Fig,  TVine,  Wheat 

^         \j  Sieppea  with  Animal  Haising 
r_  ^'^  Cereals,  Wine,  Truit 

I  [  Tropical  Bigldand  Cultures, 

I  I  (  Wheat,  Barley,  Maize  etc. ) 

^=^^  Cereals  of  the  Temperaie  Zone, 
^^^^^^     Wine  ami  Maize  „ 


After  Berghaus*8  Physical  Atlas. 


Fig.  1.56. — Agriculture  in  Africa. 


Horses  gradually  disappear  in  this  belt,  and  are  not  seen 
again  till  South  Africa  is  reached.  Cattle  also  disappear, 
except  in  East  Africa.  Cotton  is  nowhere  an  important  crop 
in  Africa  except  in  Egypt,  but  its  future  possibilities  are 


TROPICAL  AFRICA  463 

very  great.  This  region,  except  along  the  west  coast  and 
the  Niger  and  Nile  rivers,  is  now  less  influenced  by  foreign 
commerce  than  almost  any  other  part  of  Africa. 

Farther  south  is  a  large  region  of  cocoanut  palms  near 
the  sea ;  of  the  oil  palm,  extending  from  the  coast  far  into 
the  interior ;  of  the  baobab  tree  and  the  banana.  This  is 
the  district,  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  to  the  Upper  Congo, 
that  produces  most  of  the  palm  oil  from  the  fruit  of  the  oil 
palm,  sent  to  Marseilles  and  other  centers  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap  and  candles ;  and  palm  kernels,  from  which  the 
oil  is  expressed ;  and  also  the  groundnut  (peanut,  but  richer 
in  oil  than  our  peanut),  sent  in  large  quantities  to  Europe, 
and  valued  chiefly  for  its  oil.  This  also  is  a  part  of  the  habi- 
tat of  the  kola  nut,  exported  for  medical  uses,  a  large  arti- 
cle of  commerce  throughout  tropical  Africa,  where  its 
stimulating  qualities  are  valued.  From  this  area  comes 
most  of  the  African  rubber,  procured  from  various  vines, 
which  have  been  so  ruthlessly  destroyed  by  native  col- 
lectors that  they  can  scarcely  be  found  within  forty  miles 
of  the  coast.  The  baobab  tree,  under  whose  bark  is  a  fiber 
useful  in  paper-making,  is  the  giant  of  African  vegetation. 
The  banana  is  a  large  article  of  food  wherever  it  grows, 
but  foreign  markets  have  nearer  sources  of  supply. 

South  of  the  Congo  is  another  large  region  of  cotton, 
maize,  and  tropical  millet,  which  is  important  in  commerce 
along  the  Portuguese  coast.  Observe  the  great  sheep-rais- 
ing steppes  of  South  Africa ;  the  west  coast  area  of  aridity, 
in  German  Southwest  Africa,  where  the  winds  from  the  In- 
dian Ocean  have  lost  most  of  their  moisture  before  they 
reach  this  region  ;  observe  also  the  wheat  and  vine  lands  of 
South  Africa. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  continent  is  a  wide  area  where 
coffee,  tropical  cereals,  and  the  banana  are  characteristic 
plants.  At  the  south  end  of  Lake  Nyassa  coffee,  which 
brings  a  high  price  in  the  London  market,  is  now  raised. 
Near  the  coast  is  a  narrow  belt  where  the  oil  palm  again 


464  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

enters  into  trade.  The  northeastern  projection  of  Africa, 
south  of  the  Red  Sea,  has  small  part  in  commerce,  except 
along  the  coasts.  West  of  it  are  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia 
and  the  plateau  region  south  of  them  (tropical  highland 
cultures),  which  promise  to  be  of  much  future  importance. 
In  this  region  and  a  little  east  of  it  are  large  numbers  of 
cattle,  the  main  food  of  many  of  the  people. 

The  rude  native  hoe  is  the  agricultural  implement  through- 
out tropical  Africa.  The  type  of  tillage  may  be  distinguished 
as  hoe  culture.  Just  as  we  speak  of  the  garden  culture  of 
China,  the  agriculture  of  this  country,  and  the  planting 
industry  in  the  Brazil  coffee  areas.  The  banana,  yam, 
manioc,  maize,  poultry,  and  goat  are  the  staple  of  food. 

Xearly  all  the  vast  territory  is  now  held  by  European 
powers,  who  are  trying  to  develop  commerce.  The  climate 
nearly  everywhere  is  very  unhealthful.  Human  porterage 
is  the  only  means  of  transportation  in  large  regions. 

Only  three  states  of  tropical  Africa  are  independent. 
Liberia  (Fig,  154)  is  a  negro  republic,  inhabited  by  over 
20,000  colonists  from  this  country  and  perhaps  1,000,000 
natives.  The  colonists  are  farmers,  living  on  the  coast  or 
along  the  rivers  not  far  inland.  Most  of  the  country  is 
covered  with  heavy  forests,  the  products  of  which,  together 
with  palm  oil  and  coffee  of  excellent  quality,  are  the  chief 
exports.     Monrovia  is  the  capital  and  chief  seaport. 

The  Congo  Free  State  embraces  the  larger  part  of  the 
Congo  basin  (Fig.  157),  Over  1,000  white  men  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  state,  trading  companies,  and  missionary  socie- 
ties are  scattered  through  the  country.  Boma  is  the  capi- 
tal, and  Banana,  Boma,  and  Matadi  are  the  ports.  The 
chief  export  is  rubber,  the  state  being  the  largest  source  of 
African  rubber.  It  is  gathered  by  natives  mainly  in  the 
upper  Congo  region,  each  village  chief  being  compelled  to 
supply  a  certain  quantity.  It  is  a  misdemeanor  to  kill  the 
rubber  vines,  the  natives  having  been  taught  to  tap  them, 
so  that  the  wound  may  heal  and  the  plant  produce  again. 


TROPICAL  AFRICA 


465 


The  planting  of  vines  is  also  compulsory.  The  second 
largest  export  is  ivory.  Most  of  the  ivory  now  reaching 
the  markets  comes  from  this  state,  a  large  part  of  it  being 
what  is  known  as  "  dead  ivory  " ;  in  other  words,  tusks  that 
were  accumulating  in  the  country  long  before  the  natives 
met  the  whites  and  learned  that  ivory  had  commercial 


SailroaU  around  tJte  Jiapids              > 
"""^ — v^-_^          BaViifc'ala, 

..^     ''"'■    Yakoma 
Ibemboa 

Uukt                     /Stanley 
<- ^^^           (    Falls 

Bena  Kambacf 

mha 

\   -Y^oLuebo  ^ 

1 
/ 

Kwamoutiy^r'"Vo£.^^, 
Stanley  -P^iM^olo  /    \Xx 

^^^^"^atadi              WambacTl 
^f     Marilime  Port 

Fig.  157. — This  map  shows  the  Coiifro  TJiviT  and  its  tributaries  only  as  far  as  they  are 
navigable.  Steamships  from  Antwerp  and  Rotterdam  ascend  the  Congo  90  miles 
to  Matadi  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  which  interrupt  navigation  to  Stanley  Pool,  a 
distance  of  23.5  miles.  A  railroad  around  the  rapids  connects  Matadi  with  Dole, 
on  Stanley  Pool.  This  is  the  starting  point  for  a  fleet  of  over  100  steamboats 
which  ascend  the  Congo  and  its  affluents,  the  total  navigation  above  Stanley  Pool 
being  about  7,000  miles.  These  steamboats  carry  supplies  to  the  numerous  sta- 
tions of  the  Congo  Free  State  and  the  French  Congo,  and  to  the  trading  and  mis- 
sionary j)osts  that  are  scattered  along  the  navigable  water  ways  ;  and  bring  down 
the  stores  of  L'ppi^r  Congo  ivory,  rubber,  and  palm  oil  that  are  transshipped  to  the 
cars  at  Dolo.     The  principal  stations  of  the  Congo  State  are  shown. 

value.  Palm  nuts  and  palm  oil,  much  of  them  gathered 
far  up  the  Congo,  are  the  only  other  exports  of  impor- 
tance. The  imports  are  supplies  for  the  stations  and  cot- 
ton textiles,  beads,  brass  wire,  and  other  articles  for  the 
natives.* 


*  Throughout  tropical  Africa  the  sale  of  firearms  or  spirituous 
liquors  is  now  restricted  to  regions  in  which  the  trade  had  long  been 
established.     "  INIericani,"  cheap  cotton  cloth  made  in   this  country,  is 
30 


466  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Abyssinia,  a  native  kingdom,  mostly  8,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  beginning  to  be  of  some  importance  in  foreign  trade. 
The  chief  commercial  town  is  Harar,  which  is  being  con- 
nected by  a  railroad  with  the  French  port  of  Jibuti.  Nearly 
all  the  imports  are  textiles,  about  half  the  entire  purchases 
being  American  unbleached  cottons.  The  chief  exports  are 
coffee,  ivory,  civet  (an  animal  substance  used  as  a  perfume), 
gold,  wax,  and  goatskins. 

To  avoid  repetition,  it  may  be  said  that  the  exports  of 
all  the  west  coast  colonies,  from  Senegal  to  the  Congo,  con- 
sist mostly  of  palm  oil,  palm  kernels,  groundnuts,  kola 
nuts,  copal  (a  resin  used  for  varnishes),  other  gums,  rubber, 
and  a  little  coffee  and  ivory.  The  imports  are  cotton 
tissues,  cutlery,  and  other  articles,  including  firearms  and 
spirits,  where  they  are  admitted. 

Among  the  more  important  colonies  are  Senegal  (Fig.  154), 
the  outlet  of  the  French  Sudan,  with  a  fine  harbor  at  Dakar, 
which  is  connected  by  rail  with  St.  Louis,  the  capital.  The 
Senegal  River  is  navigable  for  400  miles,  and  a  railroad  is 
building  to  connect  the  head  of  navigation  with  Bammako 
on  the  Xiger.  Steamboats  ply  on  that  river  from  Bammako 
to  below  Timbuktu,  but  two  stretches  of  rapids  interrupt 
navigation  in  its  lower  course.  Freetown,  the  capital  of 
the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  has  138  inches  of  rain  a 
year  and  is  very  unhealthful.  It  is  being  connected  by  rail- 
road with  the  interior.  Grand  Bassam  is  the  chief  trading 
center  on  the  Ivory  Coast  (French),  which  produces  a  little 
gold.  This  metal  is  also  found  along  the  streams  of  Ash-  ' 
anti  (British),  where  profitable  mining  might  be  carried  on 
if  it  were  not  for  the  trying  climate.  Accra  is  the  most 
important  town.  Togoland  (German)  has  a  remarkable 
supply  of  the  oil  palm.     Dahomey  (French),  having  been 

very  popular  throughout  tropical  Africa,  large  quantities  being  sent  j 
direct  or  through  England  and  other  countries  having  African  posses-  < 
sions.  i 


TROPICAL   AFRICA  467 

freed  from  the  evils  of  human  sacrifices  and  slave-raiding, 
now  has  some  legitimate  trade  with  the  mother  country. 
Lagos  is  the  finest  British -colony  on  the  coast,  with  a  very 
large  trade  in  palm  oil.  The  population  is  dense  for  some 
distance  inland.  The  town  of  Lagos  is  the  chief  commer- 
cial center  of  West  Africa.  The  British  Sudan  (Xigeria) 
has  its  outlet  by  the  Niger  and  its  Benue  tributary,  and 
includes  the  leading  commercial  and  manufacturing  towns 
of  the  Sudan,  as  Sokoto,  Kano,  and  Katsena.  The  Came- 
roons  (German)  is  a  very  large  colony,  in  which  the  Ger- 
mans are  opening  plantations  of  cacao,  coffee,  and  tobacco, 
besides  dealing  in  native  products.  The  French  Congo 
extends  to  the  middle  of  the  continent  along  the  north 
bank  of  the  Mobangi  Eiver,  but  it  has  as  yet  only  a  fourth 
as  much  trade  as  the  Congo  Free  State.  Loango  is  the 
chief  port.  Brazzaville,  the  capital,  at  Stanley  Pool,  is  the 
starting  point  of  many  steamers. 

The  large  colony  of  Angola  has  three  important  sea- 
ports, Loanda,  Benguela,  and  Mossamedes.  Loanda  is  the 
second  largest  commercial  town  on  the  west  coast.  The 
railroad  now  in  operation  to  Ambaca  is  to  be  extended  to 
Malanje.  Rich  plantations  stretch  along  the  railroad,  the 
exports  of  vegetable  oils,  rubber,  wax,  cocoanuts,  and 
coffee  making  Angola  the  most  productive  Portuguese 
colony.  Practically  all  the  trade,  amounting  to  12,000,000 
exports  and  the  same  amount  of  imports  a  year,  is  with  the 
mother  country.  German  Southwest  Africa  is  healthful, 
mostly  arid,  but  with  rich  resources  in  copper  and  other 
metals,  and  with  some  advantages  for  grazing,  and  also  for 
agriculture,  where  irrigation  is  possible.  German  colonists 
and  Boer  refugees  from  the  Transvaal  are  settling  in  the 
most  favorable  districts. 

Portuguese  East  Africa  has  the  best  harbor  of  the  con- 
tinent at  Lorenzo  Marquez  in  Delagoa  Bay.  It  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Pretoria  and  Johannesburg,  and  does 
a  very  large  transit  business  to  and  from  the  Transvaal. 


468  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

A  railroad  extends  from  the  port  of  Beira  to  Salisbury  in 
the  British  possessions,  giving  a  short  outlet  to  the  gold 
fields  of  Mashonaland.  Quilimane  and  Mozambique  are 
other  important  ports.  Ocean  vessels  can  enter  the  Chinde 
branch  of  the  Zambesi  delta,  but  rapids  obstruct  river  navi- 
gation about  200  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The 
chief  imports  are  cottons  and  spirits. 

British  Central  Africa  is  almost  entirely  undeveloped, 
but  large  progress  has  been  made  in  the  Central  Africa 
Protectorate,  where  fine  coffee  plantations  have  been  opened 
near  the  south  end  of  Lake  Xyassa,  and  rice,  oats,  and  bar- 
ley thrive.  Blantyre  is  a  large  town,  with  industrial  schools 
where  trades  are  taught  to  the  natives. 

German  East  Africa  extends  from  the  Indian  Ocean  to 
Lake  Tanganyika.  Though  in  the  early  stages  of  develop- 
ment, the  Germans  have  opened,  a  little  inland,  large  plan- 
tations of  coffee,  cocoanut  palms,  vanilla,  tobacco,  rubber, 
and  cacao,  and  have  started  from  the  coast  at  Tanga  a 
railroad  which  will  ultimately  extend  to  the  great  lakes. 
Subsidies  are  granted  to  railroads  and  steamboats,  and  the 
Government  is  promoting  enterprise  in  various  directions. 
British  East  Africa  is  building  a  railroad  from  its  chief 
port,  Mombasa,  to  Victoria  Xyanza.  Steamboats  ply  on 
Victoria  Nyanza,  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  Lake  Nyassa. 

The  largest  African  island  is  Madagascar,  a  French  pos- 
session. French  cotton  textiles  are  the  chief  imports,  a 
preferential  tariff  in  favor  of  France  reducing  the  imports 
from  other  countries.  The  chief  exports  are  rubber,  wax, 
hides,  gold,  and  vanilla.  Mauritius  and  Reunion  are  French 
islands  producing  cane  sugar.  Zanzibar,  on  the  island  of 
that  name,  is  the  great  trade  center  for  east  equatorial 
Africa,  most  of  the  exports  being  sent  to  that  city  for  ship- 
ment ;  imports  are  forwarded  from  Zanzibar  by  the  inland 
caravan  routes.  The  island,  with  the  neighboring  island 
of  Pemba,  supplies  a  large  part  of  the  cloves  in  the 
markets. 


TROPICAL  AFRICA  459 

St.  Vincent,  in  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  off  West  Africa, 
is  a  Portuguese  coaling  station ;  the  Madeira  Islands  (Portu- 
guese) export  wine ;  La  Luz,  in  the  Canaries,  is  a  coaling 
station  for  steamers  in  the  South  African  trade ;  the  Azores, 
far  out  in  the  Atlantic  on  the  route  from  Xew  York  to 
Gibraltar,  are  visited  by  an  average  of  a  steamer  a  day  to 
recoal. 


CHAPTEE  XLYII 

TEMPERATE    SOUTH   AFRICA 

The  elevation  of  South  Africa  above  the  sea  has  important 
effect  upon  its  industries  and  commerce  (Fig.  158).  Most  of 
the  vast  plateau,  rising  from  3,000  to  over  5,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  has  a  cooler  climate  than  many  other  parts  of  the 
world  similarly  distant  from  the  equator.  Although  Cape 
Town  and  Port  Elizabeth  are  at  the  south  end  of  Africa, 
they  are  nearer  the  equator  than  is  Memphis,  Tenn.;  the 
region  north  of  them,  still  nearer  the  equator,  would  not  be 
adapted  to  become  the  home  of  millions  of  whites  if  the 
altitude  did  not  provide  comparatively  temperate  condi- 
tions.* 

More  than  half  of  South  Africa  is  deficient  in  rainfall  (Fig. 
3).  The  effect  of  this  condition  upon  density  of  popula- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  semi-arid  area  includes  the 
entire  western  half  of  the  country,  which  is  dry,  because 
South  Africa  depends  for  rain  upon  winds  from  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  eastern  coast  lands  and  highlands  receive 
the  larger  part  of  this  precipitation  as  the  winds  move 
westward ;  so  that  more  than  half  of  South  Africa  will 
never  be  adapted  to  support  a  dense  white  population, 
though  it  may  develop  large  mining  and  stock-raising,  and 
also  agriculture  where  irrigation  is  possible.     The  eastern 

*  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  a  tropical  city,  but  Johannesburg,  in  nearly  the 
same  latitude,  enjoys  a  temperate  climate.  Many  Englishmen,  with 
their  wives  and  children,  are  thriving  on  their  stock  and  wheat  farms 
near  Salisbury,  in  southern  Rhodesia,  though  they  are  seven  degrees 
of  latitude  nearer  the  equator  than  the  south  end  of  Florida. 
470 


Fig.  158. — South  Africa. 
None  of  the  ports,  except  Lorenzo  Marquez,  is  natiically  a  good  harbor.  Immense 
sums  have  been  spent  to  make  them  fairly  safe  and  convenient  for  shipping. 
Cape  Town,  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony,  is  at  a  corner  of  the  country  incon- 
veniently situated  for  the  business  of  the  interior.  It  is  the  leading  port  of  South 
Africa  only  with  respect  to  the  export  of  gold  and  diamonds,  which  it  nearly 
monopolizes.  Excepting  gold  and  diamonds,  more  of  the  things  that  South 
Africa  sells  to  the  rest  of  the  world  or  buys  from  it  pass  through  Port  Elizabeth 
than  through  any  other  port.  East  London,  on  the  Buffalo  River,  is  not  easy  to 
reach  in  certain  stages  of  the  wind,  but  is  the  second  wool  port.  Durban,  the 
chief  city  of  Natal,  has  a  large  landlocked  harbor,  but  is  too  shallow  for  steam- 
ships of  deep  draught.  It  exports  most  of  the  wool  of  the  Orange  River  Colony. 
British  and  German  capital  has  built  docks  and  warehouses  at  the  Portuguese 
port  of  Lorenzo  Marquez,  which  is  a  large  forwarding  port  for  trade  to  and  from 
the  Transvaal.  All  these  ports  are  connected  by  rail  with  the  principal  points  of 
development  in  the  interior.  Swakopmund,  the  port  of  German  Southwest 
Africa,  is  near  the  better  port  of  Walflsh  Bay,  which  is  a  British  possession.  As 
a  result  of  the  war  with  the  two  Boer  republics.  Great  Britain  has  added  them  to 
its  colonial  possessions  under  the  names  of  the  Orange  River  Colony  and  the 
Transvaal  Colony.  JohanneHburg,  witli  100,000  inhabitants  before  the  war  in 
1899,  was  then  the  largest  city  in  South  Africa. 

471 


4Y2  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

part,  however,  and  also  a  narrow  strip  across  the  south  end, 
are  adapted  for  the  cereals,  fruits,  and  other  vegetable 
products  of  temperate  or  subtropical  climates.  The  east 
and  south,  therefore,  provide  the  breadstufEs  and  wine ;  the 
high,  dry  plains  of  the  west,  with  an  abundance  of  nutri- 
tious herbage  in  spite  of  the  scanty  rainfall,  supply  the 
larger  part  of  the  animal  products.  Because  the  opportuni- 
ties for  grazing  are  larger  than  for  farming,  the  exports  of 
wool  and  hides  are  enormous,  while  imports  of  wheat  and 
some  other  farm  crops  are  considerable. 

Observe  the  distribution  of  the  agricultural  and  grazing 
industries  (Fig.  158).  "Wheat  is  grown,  northwest  of  Cape 
Town,  only  with  the  aid  of  irrigation ;  but  stretching  across 
the  south  end  of  Africa  is  a  strip  of  fine  farming  lands, 
where  wheat,  maize  (known  as  mealies,  a  large  food  stajjle), 
and  all  the  crops  of  the  temperate  zone  are  very  successful. 
The  best  of  wheat  is  also  grown  along  the  southern  border 
of  Orange  Eiver  Colony. 

East  and  northeast  of  Cape  Town,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  hills  (p.  15),  are  thousands  of  acres  of  grapes. 
Cape  Colony  is  becoming  one  of  the  large  wine  countries, 
millions  of  gallons  being  produced  every  year.  Some  of 
the  wines  are  of  high  quality,  but  the  industry,  as  a  whole, 
has  not  yet  received  the  intelligent  development  it  needs. 
In  February  and  March,  when  the  grapes  reach  their  great- 
est perfection,  enormous  quantities  of  clusters  are  carefully 
packed,  placed  in  cool  rooms  on  the  steamers,  and  sent  to 
Great  Britain,  where  the  fresh  fruit,  in  the  early  spring,  is 
much  esteemed.  Delicious  peaches,  nectarines,  and  plums 
are  also  sent  fresh  to  the  British  spring  markets  almost 
before  English  fruits  are  in  blossom. 

East  of  the  vine  region  and  north  of  the  cereal  belt  is 
qiiite  a  large  area  peculiarly  adapted  for  tobacco  culture,  so 
that  South  Africa  produces  much  of  the  tobacco  it  con- 
sumes. East  of  the  tobacco  fields  is  a  region  of  brush  and 
scrub,  known  as  the  bush  country,  which  has  developed  an 


TEMPERATE  SOUTH   AFRICA  4Y3 

industry  almost  peculiar  to  South  Africa — the  raising  of 
ostriches  for  their  feathers. 

Ostrich  culture  is  one  of  the  large  industries.  Ostrich 
feathers  are  surpassed  only  by  wool  and  the  hair  of  the  An- 
gora goat  in  the  exports  of  animal  products.*  The  busi- 
ness of  domesticating  and  raising  ostriches  was  experi- 
mental at  the  start,  and  has  had  many  vicissitudes  which 
induced  the  smaller  growers  to  abandon  it,  the  industry 
being  now  centered  mainly  in  the  hands  of  men  of  consid- 
erable capital.  The  most  valuable  feathers,  plumes  from 
the  wings  and  tail,  are  sometimes  worth  as  much  as  1200  a 
230und.    Ordinary  feathers  are  worth  from  |5  to  17  a  pound. 

Wool-growing  is  the  largest  grazing  industry.  South 
Africa  is  one  of  the  large  wool-growing  regions  (Fig.  54), 
the  product  being  usually  known  in  the  trade  as  Cape  wool. 
North  of  the  region  of  vines,  tobacco,  and  ostriches  stretch 
away  the  great  high  plains  whose  herbage  is  particularly 
relished  by  sheep.  About  13,000,000  of  them  are  feeding 
on  the  plains  from  the  Great  Karroo  northward ;  4,000,000, 
before  the  recent  war,  were  herding  on  the  high,  cool  plains 
of  the  little  Orange  Free  State.  Only  Australasia  and  the 
Eio  de  la  Plata  countries  surpass  South  Africa  in  the  quan- 
tity of  wool  exported.  Both  native  and  merino  sheep  are 
raised,  the  native  predominating  on  the  northwest  grazing 
lands,  while  the  merino  is  preferred  in  the  Great  Karroo, 
where  the  industry  has  its  largest  importance.  The  foreign 
sales  are  more  than  double  the  value  of  any  other  exported 
commodities,  excepting  gold  and  diamonds. 

Goats  are  much  more  numerous  than  cattle.  Tlio  most 
important  in  commerce  is  tlie  Angora  goat,  which  was 
brought  to  the  Cape  from  Anatolia  (Asia  Minor)  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.     The  mohair  (exports,  about 

*  About  1875  the  statistics  of  Cape  Colony  said  :  "  There  are  ten 
tame  ostriches  in  this  colony."  There  are  now  more  than  250,000  birds 
on  the  ostrich  farms  of  the  Vjush  country.  The  exports,  steadily  increas- 
ing in  recent  years,  amounted  in  1898  to  250,000  pounds  of  feathers. 


474  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

$3,000,000  a  year)  has  the  reputation  of  surpassing  that  of 
Anatolia  in  fineness  and  softness  of  texture,  though  not 
equaling  it  in  luster.  The  industry  is  mainly  centered  in 
the  east  of  the  Great  Karroo  around  Graaf  Eeinet. 

Most  of  the  cattle  are  raised  on  the  coast  lands,  which 
are  too  wet  for  sheep  and  goats,  and  in  the  middle  veldt  of 
the  Transvaal,  where  the  Boers,  on  their  enormous  farms, 
raise  large  herds.  Much  of  the  transport  of  South  Africa 
is  still  dependent  upon  the  slow  ox  wagon,  the  demand  for 
oxen,  therefore,  being  very  large.  Hides  are  among  the 
important  exports. 

Xatal  is  unique  in  two  of  its  agricultural  industries.  It 
is  the  only  colony  producing  sugar  and  tea.  Cane  sugar  is 
its  principal  product,  the  output  being  about  20,000  tons. 
The  tea  industry,  yielding  400,000  pounds  in  1899,  is  rapidly 
growing ;  the  planters  have  high  hopes  of  soon  entering 
the  foreign  markets  with  good  teas  grown  much  nearer 
the  great  consuming  countries  than  the  present  sources  of 
supply.  Indian  coolie  labor  is  employed  on  the  sugar  and 
tea  plantations.  Much  of  the  sugar  is  exported,  but  South 
Africa  is  the  market  as  yet  for  all  the  tea  raised. 

Gold  exceeds  in  value  all  the  other  exports  together.* 
This  is  due  to  the  wonderful  development  of  gold  mining 
in  the  Transvaal,  and  particularly  on  the  Witwatersrand 
around  Johannesburg  (Fig.  158).  The  Witwatersrand 
(White  Eiver  Slope)  is  a  slightly  elevated  ridge,  the  water 
parting  between  two  river  systems,  about  125  miles  in 
length  and  one  mile  to  one  and  a  half  miles  in  width.  The 
mines  thus  far  opened  extend  about  twenty-five  miles  along 
the  rand.  This  small  area,  in  1898,  produced  more  gold 
than  any  other  country  (Fig.  68). f 

*  This  statement  is  based  upon  normal  conditions,  not  upon  those 
imposed  by  war,  which  in  1900  reduced  the  gold  output  $65,000,000  be- 
low the  figures  of  the  previous  year. 

f  Some  of  the  mines  have  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  2,500  feet,  and 
experts  say  the  ore  may  be  profitably  mined  to  a  greater  depth.     The 


TEMPERATE  SOUTH  AFRICA  475 

Diamonds  are  the  second  largest  export  (p.  133).  Rough 
stones  to  the  value  of  $20,000,000  to  125,000,000  are  sent 
from  the  Kimberley  mines  every  year.  Xinety-eight  per 
cent,  of  the  diamonds  of  commerce  come  from  the  mines  in 
and  near  Kimberley,  several  other  profitable  diggings  in 
that  region  having  been  abandoned  when  the  surpassing 
richness  of  the  Kimberley  mines  was  discovered.  The 
large  production  threatening  to  overstock  the  market  and 
reduce  the  price  led  (1887)  to  the  consolidation  of  the  four 
leading  mining  companies,  which  absorbed  the  smaller  con- 
cerns till  all  the  interests  were  consolidated  under  one  man- 
agement. Xo  more  diamonds  are  mined  than  the  market 
will  take  at  a  good  price.  London  buyers  attend  the  sale 
of  rough  stones  at  Kimberley  in  March  every  year.  The 
fact  that  all  dealers  know  the  quantity  of  new  diamonds 
that  has  gone  into  the  trade,  and  that  no  further  sales 
will  occur  for  a  year,  tends  to  keep  the  market  on  a  stable 
basis. 

The  development  of  the  gold  fields  of  southern  Rhodesia, 
which  are  said  to  cover  an  area  of  about  5,000  square  miles, 
is  not  far  advanced,  but  the  early  stages  of  the  work  give 
much  promise  for  the  future.  The  valuable  copper  mines 
near  the  west  coast  are  made  accessible  by  a  railroad  from 
Port  Xolloth.  Coal  is  the  only  other  mineral  worked  to  an 
important  extent,  mainly  in  Xatal ;  the  fact  that  large  beds 
of  iron  ore  are  found  near  the  Xatal  coal  is  favorable  for  the 
future  development  of  manufactures,  which  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  exist  in  South  Africa  at  present,  except  in  rela- 
tion to  the  products  of  the  vineyards,  farms,  and  pastures. 

Practically  all  the  exports  go  to  Great  Britain.  The  gold, 
diamonds,  wool,  hides,  mohair,  wine,  and  ostrich  feathers 
that  South  Africa  sells  reach  other  countries  to  a  consider- 


work  is  entirely  carried  on  by  foreign  capital.  The  Boer  Government, 
through  the  taxes  imposed  upon  the  mining  industry,  became  one  of 
the  richest  governments  in  the  world,  in  proportion  to  population. 


476  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

able  extent,  but  mainly  through  the  channels  of  British  com- 
merce. On  the  other  hand,  a  great  many  commodities  are 
purchased  from  various  nations.  In  1897  South  Africa  pur- 
chased from  this  country  116,000,000  worth  of  goods,  includ- 
ing wheat  and  flour,  machinery,  agricultural  implements, 
hardware,  lumber,  and  naval  stores.  Nearly  all  the  textiles 
come  from  England.  As  the  country  has  very  little  timber, 
wood  products  of  all  kinds  are  imported.  Foreign  tobacco, 
largely  from  this  country,  supplements  the  home  supplies. 
While  hides  are  a  leading  export,  leather,  boots,  and  shoes 
are  purchased  in  large  quantities.  South  Africa  has  the 
raw  materials  and  favorable  climatic  conditions  for  supply- 
ing a  large  part  of  its  need  for  manufactured  commodities. 
The  fact  that  so  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  form 
of  development  is  largely  due  to  the  comparative  sparsity 
of  the  white  population,  which  has  been  fully  occupied 
with  the  work  of  opening  up  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country. 


ERRATA 


P.  103. — Henequen  instead  of  henneqnin. 

Figs.  44  and  45. — The  words  '*  in  1900,"  should  be  added  to  the 
titles. 

Fig.  138. — Barranquilla  instead  of  Barranquila;  Guayas  R.  instead 
of  Guagas  R.;  the  railroad  from  Buenaventura  to  the  Cauea  River,  not 
being  completed,  should  be  shown  by  a  broken  line. 

Fig.  140. — The  railroad  from  Nerchinsk  to  Vladivostock  and  Poi-t 
Arthur,  not  being  completed,  should  be  shown  by  broken  lines. 

Fig.  155.— Beni  Saf  instead  of  Bent  Saf. 

The  spelling  "  Hongkong  "  should  be  uniformly  used. 


INDEX 

Heavy  type  indicates  special  and  not  merely  incidental  reference  to  the 
subi'ect  indexed. 


Aalborg,  266. 
Aarhuus,  266. 
Abruzzi,  294. 
Abyssinia,  464,  466. 
Abyssinia,  mountains,  453. 
Acajutla,  340-341. 
Acapulco,  330,  331. 
Accra,  466. 
Adelaide,  438,  443. 
Aden,  326,  429. 
Adirondacks,  109. 
Adrianopol,  325. 
Adriatic,  88. 
Afghanistan,  429. 

Africa,   map   of    railroads,    navigable 
rivers,     steamship    and     caravan 
routes,  ports,  and  principal  towns, 
opposite  453. 
Africa,  South,  470-476. 

climate,  470. 

fruits,  472. 

ostricli  raising,  473. 

wool-growing,  473-474. 

gold  and  diamonds,  474-475. 

map  of  agricultural  distribution,  471. 

foreign  commerce,  475-476. 
Africa,  tropical,  461-469. 

oil  palm  and  palm  oil,  464,  465,  466, 
467. 

India  rubber,  463,  464-465,  466,  467, 
468. 

ivory,  465,  466. 

map  of  agricultural  distribution,  462. 

climate,  464. 

exports  and  imports,  466,  467,  468. 
Agra,  401. 
Aguadilla,  169. 
Aguascalicntes,  334. 
Ahmcdabad,  402,  403. 
Ai.v-la-Chapellc,  225. 
Akaroa  haroor,  map,  26. 
Alabama,  97. 

Alaska,  85-86,  89,  146,  188. 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  23,  190. 
Albany,  W.  Australia,  443. 


Albemarle  Sound,  25. 
Alberta,  184,  190. 
Alburv,  439. 
Alcohol,  69,  233. 

Alcoholic  liquors,  69,  71,  247,  252. 
Alewives,  84  ;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  84. 
Alexandria,  455. 

map  note.  Fig.  154. 
Algeria,  230,  235,  237,  240,  456-458. 

dates,  456-458. 

vegetables,  456. 

foreign  trade,  458. 

statistics,  460. 
Algiers,  456,  457. 

map  of  harbor,  24. 
Algoma,  190. 

Alibert  graphite  mines,  392. 
Alicante  wine,  300. 
Alimentary  pastes,  232,  456. 
Alkmaar,  252. 

Alleghany  County,  Pa.,  141. 
Almaden,  282. 
Alpaca,  map  showing  distribution  of, 

46,  377. 
Alpaca  wool,  99,  377,  380. 
Alps.  16,  268,  289. 

tourists  in,  16-17,  275.  ' 
Alpine  tunnels,  274 
Alsace-Lorraine,  221,  222,  224. 
Altata,  330. 
Altitudes,  diagram  sliowing  influence 

on  temperature,  6. 
Aluminium,  134-135;  in  United  States, 

135. 
Amapala.  339. 

Amazon,  river,  349,  376,  882. 
Amazon,  basin,  348,  351,  380. 
Ambaea,  467. 
America,  Central,  336-342. 

map,  338. 
America,  South  : 

contrast  between   Atlantic  and   I'a- 
citic  slopes  in,  343. 
Amoy,  14,  422. 

477 


478 


COMxMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Amsterdam,  252,  254,  255-256. 

Amu  Daria,  395. 

Amur,  river,  300,  391,  392. 

Amur,  region,  390. 

Anaconda,  Mont.,  129-130. 

Anatolia,  32.5-326,  473-474. 

Anchovies,  maps  showing  distribution 

of,  85,  234. 
Ancona,  289. 
Andes,  370,  374,  380. 
Androscoggin,  97. 
Angola,  467. 
Angora,  326. 

Angora  goat,  99,  326,  473-474. 
Aniline  dyes,  119. 

Animals,  domestic,  46-46,  76-78,  80- 
82 ;  map  showing  distribution  of, 
46. 
Animals,  draft,  45-46 ;  map  showing 

distribution  of,  46. 
Annam,  431,  432. 
Anping,  413. 
Ansonia,  Conn.,  146. 
Antarctic,  5. 
Anthracite,  116,  118 
Antilles,  Lesser,  385. 
Antimony,  380. 
Antofagasta,  368,  380. 
Antrim,  199. 
Antwerp,  222,  247,  254. 
Aomori,  407. 
Aparri,  176. 
Apia,  452. 
Appalachian  regions,  54,  118,  119,  120, 

122. 
Appalachians,  16. 
Apples,  69,  185,  280,447. 
Arabia,  326,  429,  458. 
Aracaju,  349. 
Arauco,  366,  367. 
Archangel,  317. 
Arctic  Ocean : 

map  showing  drainage  area  of,  40. 

whale  fisheries,  88. 
Ardennes,  242. 
Arecibo,  169. 
Arequipa,  378. 
Argentina,  333,  361-365. 

map,  357. 

wool  industry,  361. 

meat  industry,  361-362. 

wheat,  362-363. 

statistics,  369. 
Arizona,  129. 
Arlberg,  tunnel,  274,  278. 
Armenia,  427. 
Arno,  292. 
Aroa,  345. 

Arrowroot,  351,  386. 
Arroyo,  169. 
Articles  de  Paris,  240,  391. 


Ascotan,  Lake,  380. 

Ashanti,  466. 

Ashio,  411. 

Ashland,  123. 

Asia  Minor.     See  Anatolia. 

Asia,  Eussiau  Central,  393-395. 

Askabad,  395. 

Asphalt,  386. 

Assam,  71,  402,  403. 

Assiniboia,  184. 

Asti  wine,  293. 

Astrakhan,  317,  395. 

Asuncion,  355,  358. 

Assuan,  453. 

Atbara,  river,  453. 

Atlas  Mountains,  457. 

Athabasca,  185. 

Athens,  323,  324. 

Atlanta,  155, 157. 

Atlantic  coastal  plain,  54. 

Atlantic  Ocean : 

drainage  area  of,  map,  40. 

importance  as  a  commercial  high- 
way, 40. 
Atrato,  river,  370. 
Attar  of  roses,  321-322,  325,  328. 
Auckland,  446. 
Augsburg,  226. 
Augusta,  Ga.,  140. 
Augusta,  Me.,  97. 
Australia,  435-444. 

sheep  and  wool,  435,  437-438. 

agricultural  map,  435. 

droughts,  438. 

minerals,  440,  441. 

frozen  meat,  438-439. 

foreign  trade,  437,  442-444. 

statistics,  444. 

map  of  railroads  and  ports,  443. 
Austria-Hungary,  277-287. 

agriculture^  278-280  ;  map   showing 
distribution  of,  279. 

horse  raising,  280-281. 

wine  industry,  280. 

sugar  production,  280. 

hops  in  Bohemia,  280. 

salt  mining,  282. 

manufactures,  281-283 ;  map  showing 
centers  of,  282. 

foreign  commerce,  285-286  ;    statis- 
tics, 286-287. 

maps,  282,  283,  284. 
Au.x  Cayes,  384. 
Avignon,  238. 
Azof,  Sea,  316. 
Azores,  469. 

Baccarat,  cut  glass  of,  238. 
Basrdad,  326. 
Baffdad,  Mexico,  330. 
Bahamas,  383,  384^385. 


INDEX 


479 


Bahamas,  sponges,  88,  384. 

population,  387. 
Bahia,  349,  350. 
Bahia  Blanca,  364. 
Bahrein  Islands,  332,  428. 
Baku,  393,  395,  427. 
Balearic  Islands,  300. 
Balkan  Peninsula,  318-327. 

map  of,  319. 
Ballarat,  441. 
Ballari,  401. 
Balsam  of  Peru,  340. 
Baltic  ports,  215,  307,  316. 
Baltimore,  23,  68,  120,  141,  145, 160. 
Bamboo,  108,  419. 
Bammako,  466. 
Banana,  464. 

Bananas,  450  ;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  66. 

tropical  Africa,  450,  463,  464. 

Honduras,  339. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  172. 

Fiji  Islands,  451. 

Jamaica,  385. 

Mexico,  331. 

Guatemala,  339. 

Nicaracrua,  341,  342. 

Costa  Rica,  342. 

Australia.  439. 
Banda,  island,  430. 
Bandar  Abbas,  428. 
Bangalur,  401. 
Bangkok,  431. 
Ban'^or,  23. 
Banka,  433. 
Baobab  tree,  463. 
Baracoa,  179. 
Barbados,  385-386. 

population,  387. 
Barberton,  471. 
Barcelona,  Sj)ain,  302. 
Barcelona,  V  enezuela,  345. 
Barletta,  289. 

Barley,  65 ;  diagram  of  world  produc- 
tion, 64. 

Russia,  307. 

Germany,  65,  218,  225. 
Barmen-Elberfeld,  223. 
Barnslev,  208. 
Baroda,'403. 
Barquisimeto,  346. 
Barrancas,  346. 
Barranquilla,  372,  373. 
Bartica,  347. 
Basel,  272,  274. 
Basra,  320. 
Batavia,  434. 
Bath,  England,  210. 
Bath,  Me.,  143. 
Batum.  393. 
Bavaria,  219,  221,  222,  224,  225. 


Bear,  89, 188. 
Beaufort,  N.  C,  111. 
Beaver,  89,  188. 
Beche-de-mer,  434,  450. 
Beech  tree,  108,  220,  321. 
Beef,  76-81 ;    extension   of  trade    in, 
76-77 :  refrigeration  and  preserv- 
ing, 76-77,  78-79. 
United  States,  77-81, 186  ;  map  show- 
ing   centers    of    production    and 
packing,  77  ;  statistics  of  exports, 
90-91. 
Uruguay,  358-359. 
Argentina,  186,  361-362. 
Australia,  186,  438-439. 
Denmark,  265 
Beer,  71. 

Germanv,  71,  219,  225,  226. 
Great  Britain,  71,  210. 
United  States,  71. 
Belgium,  247. 
Austria-Hungary,  280. 
Beet  sugar.     See  Sugar. 
Behar,  403.  ~^ 

Beira,  468. 
Beirut,  326. 
Belfast,  199,  209. 
Belgium,  242-249. 

mineral  resources,  244-245. 

flax  and  linen,  243,  246-247. 

metal  industries,  245-246. 

sugar,  247. 

textiles  and  other  industries,  246-247, 

248. 
ivory,  248. 

canals  and  railroads,  247. 
foreign  commerce,  248-249. 
statistics,  249. 
maps,  243,  253. 
Belgrade,  285,  321. 
Belle  Isle,  N.  F.,  190. 
Belle  Isle,  Strait  of,  191. 
Bengal,  71,  399,  402,  403. 
Bengal,  Bay  of,  397,  400. 
Benguela,  467. 
Beni  Eiver,  380.  381. 
Beni  Saf,  457. 
Benue,  river,  467. 

map  note.  Fig.  154. 
Benzene,  113. 
Berdiansk,  316. 
Bergen,  261,  262. 
Bering  Sea,  86. 
Bering  Strait,  88. 

Beriin,  223,  224,  226,  391 ;  map  show- 
ing comparative  size  of,  21. 
Bermejo,  river,  363. 
Bermuda,  69,  386-387. 

statistics,  388. 
Bern,  271. 
Bessemer,  Henry,  126. 


480 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Beta  Madre,  333. 
Beverages : 
alcoholic,   69-71.     See   Wine,  Beer, 

Brandy,  Whisky,  Gin,  Ruin,  Vod- 
ka, Cider,  Pulque, 
nonalcoholic,    69,    71-72.     See  Tea, 

Coifee,   Cocoa,    Chocolate,   Yerba 

mate. 
Biddeford,  97. 
Bielefeld,  225. 
Bilbao,  303. 
Billingsgate,  86. 
Billiton,  433. 
Biobio  Kiver,  367. 
Birds-of-paradise,  450. 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  122, 123, 125  ;  map, 

125. 
Birmingham    district,    England,    196, 

206,  209. 
Biscay,  Bay  of,  236,  302. 
Biskra,  458. 
Bismuth,  379. 
Bizerta,  457. 
Black  beans,  337,  351. 
Blackburn,  208. 
Black  Country,  206-207. 
Black-earth  regions,  309,  320,  390. 
Black  Sea  ports  (Russia),  307,316,393. 
Blantyre,  468. 
Bleiburg,  282. 

Bluefields  River  (Rama),  341. 
Bluefields  (town),  341. 
Bluetish,  84 : 

map  showing  distribution  in  United 

States,  84. 
Bogota,  372,  373. 
Bohemia,  277,  278,  279,  280,  281,  283, 

284. 
Bokhara  (city),  395. 
Bokhara  (country),  314,  394,  395,  417. 
Bolivia,  379-381. 
extremes  of  temperature,  379. 
metals,  379,  380. 
rubber,  381. 
statistics,  382. 
Bolton,  208. 
Boma,  464. 

Bombay.  399,  400,  402,  403,  428. 
Bona,  457. 
Bora.x,  379,  380. 

Bordeaux,  228,  230,  233,  239-240. 
Bordeaux  wine,  230,  235. 
Borneo,  British,  434. 
Borneo,  Dutch,  113,  433-434. 
Bosnia,  286,  324. 
Boston,  26,  44,  99,  104,  109,  130,  141, 

145,  146,  157, 159. 
Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  263. 
Boulocrne,  2.30. 
Brabant,  244. 
Bradford,  England,  206,  208. 


Brahmanists,  398 ;  map  showing  dis- 
tribution of,  32. 
Brandy,  71,  235,  280. 
Brass,  130. 
Brazil,  348-352. 

coffee,  348-350. 

India  rubber,  348,  351. 

diamonds,  133,  351. 

map,  349. 

steamship  communications,  352. 

statistics,  354. 
Brazil  nuts,  351. 
Brazil  wood,  113,  351. 
Brazzaville,  467. 
Brea  Lake,  386. 
Breadfruit  tree,  449. 

map  showing  distribution  of,  66. 
Bremen,  96,  216. 
Bremerhaven,  215,  216. 
Brenner  Pass,  278. 
Breslau,  219,  226. 
Brest,  230. 

Bridgetown,  Barbados,  386. 
Brie  cheese,  235. 
Brindisi,  289. 
Brisbane,  443. 
Bristol,  England,  198. 
Bristol  coal  field,  map,  206. 
Bristol,  Conn.,  146. 
British  Central  Africa,  468. 
British   Columbia,  184,  186,  187,  1--. 

189,  190-191. 
British  East  Africa,  468. 
British  Guiana,  347. 

map,  344. 

statistics,  353. 
British  Isles.     See  United  Kingdom. 
Britisli  New  Guinea,  450. 
British  West  Indies,  384r-386. 
Brito,  341. 

Brockton,  Mtuss.,  144. 
Broken  Hill,  441. 
Bronze,  130. 
Brooklyn,  68. 
Bruges,  247. 
Brtmn,  282,  283. 
Brunswick,  226. 
Brussels,  246,  247. 
Bucarananga,  373. 
Bucharest,  320. 
Buckwheat,  65. 
Budapest,  279,  283. 
Buddhism,  32,  33. 
Buenaventura,  373. 
Buenos  Aires,  349,  355,  361,  362,  364. 

365. 
Buenos  Aires,  Province  of,  360,  361. 
Buffalo,  141,  142,  152, 163,  157. 
BuffalcT  River,  471. 
BuiT,  river,  311. 
Bulgaria,  285,  321-322  ;  map,  319. 


INDEX 


481 


Bulgaria,  statistics,  327. 

Burgits,  318,  322. 

Burma,  134,  396,  400,  404,  431. 

Burnley,  208. 

Burton,  202. 

Burton-on-Trent,  210.. 

Bury,  208. 

Bushire,  428. 

Butte,  Mont.,  129-130. 

Butter,  79. 

Denmark,  79,  265. 

France,  235. 

Netherlands,  252. 

Sweden,  259. 

New  Zealand,  445,  447. 

Australia,  439. 

United  States,  79;  map  showing 
centers  of  production  in,  77  ;  sta- 
tistics of  exports,  90 ;  reasons  for 
decline  of  exports,  79. 

Cabinet  woods  (for  furniture,  etc.),  108, 

110,  176,  356,  363. 
Cabo  Rojo,  170. 
Cabugaro,  373. 

iCacao,  72 ;  map  showing  distribution 
!        of,  70. 

•■    Ecuador,  72,  374,  376. 
I    Venezuela,  344,  346. 
Santo  Domingo,  384. 
Honduras,  339-340. 
Trinidad,  386. 
Haiti,  384. 
Cadiz,  303. 
Cagavan,  176. 
Cairns,  439,  443. 
Cairo,  Egypt.  4.53,  454. 
•;iiro,  111.,  155. 
'alais,  230. 
al.utta,  399,  430. 
'aMera,  368. 
'alirut,  399. 
JalUornia,  65,  68,  69,  71,  73,  87,  134, 

173. 
Jalifornia,  Lower,  8,  328,  330. 
California,  Gulf  of,  331. 
?allao,  340,  .378. 

map  of  liarl)or,  26. 
:;ambodia,  431,  432. 
Jamdcn,  N.  .J..  99. 
iJamel's  hair,  99. 
Darnels,  46,  99,  326,  419,  429. 
^merrrt'jCTtrchT 
Darneroons,  467. 
Jampagna,  291. 
3ampeche,  330. 
:amphor,  411,  412,  434. 
.'ampine,  244,  247. 
3am  pos,  .'549. 
Camwood,  113. 
3anada,  182-193. 
31 


Canada,  wheat  and  Hour,  185. 

lumber,  107,  110,  188-189. 

cheese,  79,  186. 

fisheries,  83,  85-86,  186-188. 

furs,  88, 188. 

apples,  185. 

commerce,  192-193. 

statistics  of  trade,  193-194. 

map,  183. 
Canadian  canal,  152  ;  map,  152. 
Canals,  ship,  and  maps  of,  42-44. 
Canaries,  409. 
Canterbury  Plain,  446. 
Canton,  415,  416,  420,  422. 
Caoutchouc.     See  India  rubber. 
Cape  Breton  Island,  190. 
Cape  Colony,  472-474. 
Cape  Haitien,  384. 
Cape  Town,  470,  471,  472. 

map  note.  Fig.  154. 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  469. 
Capital,  its  value  in  commerce,  33. 
Caracas,  343,  344,  346. 
Caravan  routes  and  caravans  in  Asia, 
391,  394,  424,  427,  428. 

in  Africa,  453,  455,  459,  468. 
Cardiff;  198,  345,  360. 
Cariboo  district,  189. 
Carinthia,  281. 
Carmen,  330. 
Carolina,  North,  72. 
Carolina,  South,  136. 
Carolinas,  54,  111. 
Carpathians,  281.  318,  320. 
Carrara  marble,  2S9,  296. 
Cartagena,  Colomliia,  373. 
Cashmere  goat,  99. 

shawls,  99,  402. 
Caspian  Sea,  393,  394,  395,  427. 
Cassia,  419. 
Castile,  300. 
Catamarca,  364. 
Catania,  289. 
Cattaro,  285,  323. 

Cattle,  77,  78:  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  40. 

United    States,  77-78  ;   statistics   of 
exports,  90. 

Russia,  308,  310. 

India,  77,  398,  403. 
^  Germany,  219. 

Canada,  186. 
-Argentina,  77,  360,  361,  362. 

Uruguay,  358-359. 

Netherlands,  250,  251-252. 

Denmark,  265. 

Colom}>ia,  .372. 

France,  235. 

Switzerland.  270-271. 
Cauca,  river,  .370,  372. 
Cauca,  region,  370-372,  373. 


482 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Caucasia,  393,  427. 

Caucasian  Mountains,  305. 

Caviare,  86,  317. 

Cayenne,  348. 

Cayenne  pepper,  430. 

Ceara,  349. 

Cebu,  176. 

Cedar,  339,  342. 

Ceiba,  339. 

Celebes,  433. 

Central  Africa  Protectorate,  468. 

Central  America,  336-342 ;  map,  338. 

See  also  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Sal- 
vador, Nicaragua,  Costa  Eica. 
Central  High  Tlains,  Germany,  214. 
Cereals,  57-66  ;  diagram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 57. 

See  also  Wheat,  Maize,  Eye,  Oats, 
Eice,  Barley,  Millet,  Buckwheat, 
Mealies. 
Cerro  Pa.sco,  377-378. 
Cetinje,  323. 
Cette,'  230. 
Ceuta,  88. 

Ceylon,  71,  108,  113,  136,  332,  404-405. 
Chad,  Lake,  455. 
Chad,  Lake,  region  of,  461-462. 
Chalk,  2G6. 

Champagne,  region,  235. 
Champagne  wine,  235. 
Champerico,  338. 
Champlain,  Lake,  192. 
Charente,  235. 
Charleroi,  246. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  157. 
Charleville,  4-37. 
Charters  Towers,  441,  443. 
Chaudiere  Falls,  189. 
Chaux-de-Fonds,  La,  272. 
Chavigny,  237. 
Cheese,  79. 

Canada,  79,  186. 

France,  235,  240. 

Switzerland,  270-271. 

The  Netherlands,  252. 

Italy.  79,  294. 

New  Zealand,  445,  447. 

United  States,  79 ;  map  showing  area 
of  production  in,  77  ;  statistics  of 
exports,  91. 
Chemnitz,  219,  22.3,  224,  225. 
(Chemulpo,  432. 
Cherburg,  228,  2.30. 
Chesapeake  Bav,  84,  87,  160. 
Chester,  Pa.,  99. 
Chestnut  tree,  108. 
Chestnuts,  293. 
Chianti  wine,  293. 
Chicago,  24,  80-81,  104,  109,  111,1.33, 

141, 142,  144,  145,  151, 152-153. 
Chifu,  422. 


Chihuahua,  333. 
Chile,  333,  365-368. 

nitrate  of  soda,  366. 

climate,  365. 

manufactures,  366-367. 

map,  357. 

statistics,  369. 
Chile  saltpeter,  366. 
Chilian,  367. 
Chilpancingo,  334. 
Chimbote,  378. 
China,  414-426. 

agricultural  predominance,  414. 

silk  production,  101-102,  415-417. 

tea  culture,  417-418. 

cotton,  418. 

mineral  wealth,  419-420. 

industries,  420-421. 

firecrackers,  420^21. 

inland  navigation,  39,  421  :  map,  422. 

treaty  ports,  422. 

map  showing  chief  products  of,  415, 

extreme  density  of  population,  414. 

map  showing  railroads,  422. 

foreign  commerce,  420-421. 

statistics,  425-426. 
China  clay,  207.  419. 
China  grass,  103,  418. 
China  wax,  410,  419. 
Chinandega,  .341. 
Chinde,  468. 
Chin-kiang,  422. 
Chocolate,  72,  374,  376. 
Chocoli  wine,  364. 
Christcliurch,  26,  446. 
Christian  religions,  map  showing  dis- 
tribution of,  32. 
Christiania,  261,  263. 
Chubut,  river,  364. 
Chung-king,  421,  422. 
Churdiill,  river,  182. 
Cider,  235. 

Cinchona  tree,  376,  405,  433. 
Cincinnati,  24, 151. 
Cinnamon,  404. 

Cities,  causes  determining  location  ofj 
22-24.  _         ._  ) 

map   showing  comparative   size   of 
large,  21. 
Citrus  fruits,  293-294. 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  345,  -346. 
Ciudad  Juarez.  330. 
Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz,  330. 
Civet.  466. 
Civita  Vecchia,  289. 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  142.  152. 153.  155. 
Cleveland    iron    field,   England,   198, 

20.5-206,  map  of,  206. 
Climate,  4-9. 

influence  on  commerce,  4. 

influence  on  agriculture,  4-5. 


INDEX 


483 


Climate,  tropical,  5. 
polar,  5-6. 
temperate,  6-7. 
sea,  7-9. 

continental,  7-9. 

rainfall,   7 ;    map    showing    annual 
aiiii.junt  of,  8. 
n-v^s,  430,  468. 
Oly.li',  rivtr,  17,  25,  199,  209,  210. 
Clyde  coal  lield,  with  map,  206. 
Coal,  116-119  ;  map  showmg  distribu- 
tion of,  12  ;  diagram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 118. 
United  States,  117-119;  maps  show- 
intr  mining  centers  in,  117,  125; 
statistics  of  foreign  trade  in,  127. 
Great    Britain,   117,   205-206;    map 
showing   fields  of,  206 ;   statistics 
of  exports,  213. 
China,  419. 
Germany,  221-222;  mining  centers, 

map,  223. 
France,  236-237. 
Austria-Hungary,  281. 
.Vustralia,  440-441. 
IJelgium,  245. 
Russia,  310. 
Coal  gas,  119. 
Coal  tar,  113,  119. 
Coamo,  170. 

I  '<  la^ts,  promote  or  hinder  trade,  18-19. 
I '  iiitzacoalcos,  330. 
It,  136,  450. 
i!i,  337,338. 
.1.  377. 
I  —aine,  377. 
<'i''liabamba,  380. 
<    -liiu  China,  431-432. 
! Ileal,  113,  328. 
a,  72,  376. 
I  '    'laiiut  palm  and  nuts,  449. 
map  ^li'nviniC  distribution  of,  58. 
i'ariti.'  Ishuids,  449,  45'J. 
tropical  Africa,  463,  467. 
Central  America,  339,  340. 
Cod,  83-84;    maps  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  84,  85;  statistifes,  92. 
Newfouii.lland,  8.3,  193. 
Canada,  83,  186-188. 
United  States,  82-84. 
France,  83,  236. 
Norway,  83,  259. 
Great  Britain,  203. 
Cod-liver  oil,  83, 193. 
offee,  71 ;  map  showing  distribution 

of,  70. 
Brazil,  71,  348-350. 
Haiti,  383-384. 
Venezuela,  344. 
Colombia,  370,  372. 
Ecuador,  374. 


CoflFee,  Central  America,  337,  338-339, 
340,  341,  342. 
tropical   Africa,  '463,  464,  466,  467, 

468.  X 

Turkey  in  Asia,  326. 
Java,  433. 
Mexico,  331. 

statistics    of    imports    into    United 
States,  75. 
Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  100. 
Coke,  116,119. 
Colima,  330. 
Cologne,  224,  226. 
Colombia,  370-374. 
map,  371. 
emeralds,  373. 
sparsity  of  population,  370. 
Statistics,  381. 
Colombo,  405. 
Colon,  373. 
Colonies,  30-33. 

map  showing  distribution  of,  31. 
conunercial   advantages  to    mother 

countries,  33,  211,  239,  247,  254. 
Dutch  colonial  system,  433. 
Colquechaca,  380. 
Columbia,  S.  C,  140. 
Jrl^olumbia  Kiver,  84,  151,  189. 
Colza,  244. 
Comayagua,  340. 
Commerce,  defined,  2. 
conditions  promoting,  4-26,  170-171, 
177,  179, 182,  191-192, 195, 198,  214, 
250,  256. 
impediments  to,  14,  19-20,  29,  35,  36, 

318,  322,  337,  344,  453. 
infltrence  of  governments  on,  29-33, 
-^  324. 

influence  of  religions  on,  33. 
influence  of  density  of  population, 

36-38. 
rapid  growth  of,  162. 
conditions  which  made  Europe  larg- 
est center  of,  163-164." 
parallel  between  domestic  and  for- 
eign, 162-163. 
statistical  table  of,  166. 
map  .showing  distribution  of.  Fig.  1. 
Commercial  geography,  defined,  2-3 ; 

bases  of,  1-3. 
Commonwealth  of  Australia,  437. 
Como,  296. 
Como.x,  190. 
Concepcion,  367. 
Conduits,  47,  394. 
Coiifjo  Basin,  6-7,  464. 
Congo  Free  State,  24S,  464-465,  467. 
Contro,  French,  465,  467. 
Cori!.")  River,  465. 

Connecticut,  113,  1.30,  133,  137,  146. 
Connecticut,  river,  84. 


484 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Connellsville  region,  119. 
Constance,  Lake,  273. 
Constansa,  320. 
Constantinople,  318,  321,  325,  326. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 
Coolitown,  443. 
Coolies,  347,  451,  474. 
Copaiba  balsam,  372. 
Copenhagen,  216,  266. 
Copiapo,  368. 

Copper,  129-130;  map  showing  dis- 
tribution of,  12 ;  diagram  of  world 
production,  129. 

United  States,  129-130  ;  statistics  of 
production  and  exports,  137  ;  map 
of  shipping  ports,  123. 

Spain  and  Portugal,  301,  303. 

Peru,  377-378. 

Germany,  222. 

Mexico,  332. 

Japan,  411. 

Bolivia,  379. 

Kussia,  310. 

Australia,  441. 

Chile,  366. 
Copper  Range,  123. 

Copra,  173,  176,  404,  449,  450,  451,  452. 
Coquimbo,  367. 
Coral,  294. 

Cordilleras,  15,  363,  376,  378,  379. 
Cordoba,  Spain,  300. 
Cordoba,  Argentina,  360,  362,  364. 
Corinth  Canal,  43,  323. 

map,  43. 
Corinto,  341. 
Cork,  199. 

Cork  tree  and  cork,  114,  301,  303,  456. 
Corn  Belt,  61-63. 
Cornwall,  207. 
Corrientes,  364. 
Costa  Kiea,  342  ;  map,  338. 
Cotton,  93-96  ;  diagram  of  world  pro- 
duction,   93 ;    statistics   of  world 

consumption,  105 ;  ginning,  95 ;  mean 
length,  377. 

United  States,  55,  94-96  ;  map  show- 
ing distribution  in,  94 ;  statistics 
of  exports,  105. 

India,  95.  239,  400-402. 

Russian  Central  Asia,  393-394. 

Peru,  377. 

Egypt,  95,  239. 

China,  418. 

Brazil,  95,  239,  350. 

Mexico,  331. 

imports  into  Great  Britain,  97,  204  ; 
statistics,  212. 

imports  into  Germany,  223-224,  227. 

imports  into  Japan,  409. 
Cotton  manufactures,  9.3-94,  96 ;  statis- 
tics of  spindles,  105. 


Cotton  manufactures,  Great  Britain,  97, 
207-208 ;  map  showing-centers  of, 
208 ;  statistics  of  exports,  213. 

United  States,  96-98 ;  map  showing 
areas  of  production  and  manufac- 
ture, 94 ;  statistics,  105. 

Germany,  223-224. 

Russia,  313. 

Belgium,  247. 

India,  402. 
Cotton-oil  cake  and  meal,  103-104,  248. 
Cotton-seed  oil,  103,  230,  418. 
Courtrai,  246-247. 
Coventry,  208. 
Cowrie  shells,  34. 
Cracow,  284. 
Crete,  324. 
Creuzot,  Le,  237. 
Crimea,  305,  310. 
Crvolite,  267. 
Cuba,  177-181. 

advantages  giving  commercial  im- 
portance to,  177,  178-179. 

tobacco,  72-73, 178,  179-180. 

cane  sugar,  178-180. 

map,  178. 
Culiacan,  330. 

Cumberland  coal  liclds,  with  map,  206. 
Cura(,-ao,  300. 
Cura^-ao,  liqueur,  252,  300. 
Currants,  324. 

Currents,  ocean,  influence  on  naviga- 
tion, 19-20. 
Cuxhaven,  215,  216. 
Cuyaba,  349. 

Dahomey,  466-467. 

Daiquiri,  180. 

Dairy    products.     See    Milk,    Butter, 

Cheese,  Oleomargarine. 
Dakar,  466. 
Dakota,  Korth,  42. 
Dakotas,  60. 
Dalmakia,  277,  284. 
Dalny,l391. 
Damasfius,  326. 
Danish  West  Indies,  386. 
Danneniora,  261,  262. 
Danube,  217.  278,  282,  284,  318,  321. 
Danzig,  23,  216,  225. 
Darling  River,  437. 
Dates,  458. 

map  showing  distribution  of,  66. 

Africa,  456-458,  459,  461. 

Asia,  326,  428. 
Deccan,  396,  397,  400. 
Dcdeagatsch,  318,  325. 
Delagoa  Bay.  467-468. 
Delaware,  69.  87,  146. 
Delaware  Bay,  25,  51. 
Delaware,  river,  17,  84,  151,  160. 


INDEX 


485 


Delft,  253,  254. 
Delhi,  401. 
Demerara,  347. 
Denmark,  264-267. 

agriculture,  265. 

butter,  79,  265. 

foreign  commerce.  266;  statistics,  267. 

maps,  260,  263. 

colonies,  Iceland,  Greenland,  Dan- 
ishAVest  Indies,  267,  386. 
Deserlhto,  189. 
Detroit,  152,  153. 
Detroit  River,  152. 
Devon,  207. 
Diamantina.  351. 
Diamond  cutting,  238,  253-254. 
Diamonds,    133-134 ;     map    showing 
mining  centers  of,  13. 

Cape  Colony,  475. 

Brazil,  133-134,  351. 
Dieppe,  230. 
Dinant,  246. 
Divi-divi,  384. 
Dnieper,  river,  305,  311. 
Dnieper-Beresina  system,  314. 
Dnieper-Pripet   and   Niemen  system, 

314. 
Dnieper-Pripet    and  Vistula    system, 

314. 
Dniester,  river,  311. 
Dobruja,  320. 

Dog,  as  beast  of  burden,  45-46. 
Dogger  Bank,  203./ 
Dolhain,  246. 
Dole,  465.  / 

Don,  river,  305/Sll. 
Donetz  coal  fields,  316. 
Donetz  River,  310. 
Dongola,  29./ 

Donkey,  45,  46,  294,  301,  343. 
Dortmund,  233. 
Doubs,  231.  / 
Dover,  198. 
Downs,  18,  204,  438. 
Drainage  areas,  map  of,  40. 
Drammen,  261. 
Dnive,  282. 
Dresden,  226. 
Dublin,  190,  210. 
Duisburjc,  ^23. 

Dulutli,\!3,  123, 152,  153,  192. 
Dundiig,  441. 
Dundee,  103,  205,  209. 
I)unedin,  44.5. 
Dunkirk,  228,  230,  236. 
Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  142. 
Duraiii^'o,  333. 
Durban,  4ri. 
Durliarii,  N.  C.,  73. 

Durhaiii-Nortliumberland    coal    field, 
206,  209  ;  map,  206. 


Diisseldorf,  224. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  254,  433^34. 

Dutch  Guiana,  347. 

map,  344. 

statistics,  353. 
Dutch  New  Guinea,  450. 
Dutch  West  Indies,  386. 
Dvina,  Northern,  308,  314. 
Dvina,  Western,  305. 
Dwarfs,  African,  1,  2. 
Dyes,  lis. 
Dyewoods,  113,  332,  336,  372. 

Eastern  Rumelia,  322. 
East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  137 
East  London,  471. 
Eastport,  Me.,  187. 
Ebony,  108. 
Ecuador,  374-376. 

cacao,  72,  374. 

Panama  hats,  375. 

map,  371. 

statistics,  381. 
Edam  cheese,  252. 
Edible  birds'  nests,  434. 
Edinburgh,  210. 
Edmonton,  188. 
Eger,  283. 
Eggs,  82. 

Russia,  82,  315. 

Denmark,  203,  265. 

China,  419. 

France,  236. 

Austria-Hungary,  281. 

Belgium,  244. 

Italy,  294. 

imports   into  United  Kingdom,  82, 
203. 
Egypt,  453-455. 

irrigation,  453. 

cotton,  453-454. 

tobacco,  454. 

statistics,  460. 
Egyptian  cigarettes,  454. 
Eisenerz,  281. 
Ekaterinoslaw,  310. 
Elba  island,  289,  295. 
Elbe,  river,  17,  43,  216,  217,  278. 
Elberfeld,  224. 
Elbing,  226. 

Electricity,  transmit  power,  47-48. 
Elephants,   45-46,  399 ;  map   showing 

distribution  of,  46. 
Emeralds,  134,  373. 
Encarnaeion,  355. 
England : 

climate,  195-196. 

surface,  196. 

harbors,  18S. 

for  irmi.  coal,  numufactures,  etc.,  see 
United  Kingdom. 


486 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


English  Channel,  236. 

Ensley,  Ala.,  125. 

Erie  Canal,  45,  53,  110,  140, 153-154. 

Erie,  Lake,  124 ;  map  of  iron-ore  ports 
on.  124. 

Erie,  Fa.,  142. 

Erivan,  393. 

Erzgebirge,  221-222. 

Escanaba,  123. 

Eskilstuna,  262. 

Eskimo,  5,  27  ;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  28. 

Esmeraldas,  375. 

Esparto,  103,  300,  455,  456,  457,  459. 

Espirito  Santo,  State,  349. 

Essen,  223,  237. 

Esthonia,  313. 

Eucalyptus,  108,  440. 

Euphrates,  17. 

Faizabad,  401. 
Fajarro,  109. 
Fall  River,  97. 
Falun,  261. 
Faroe  Islands,  267. 
Ferghana,  394,  395. 
Fertilizers : 

Phosphates,  136. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  136,  366. 

fish,  408. 
Fibers,  93-103.    See  also  Cotton,  Wool, 
Silk,  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,   Espaito, 
llenequen,  Manila  Hemp,  Kamie, 
Fhormium. 
Figs,  69. 

Fiji  Islands,  451. 
Finland,  310. 
Firecrackers,  420-421. 
Fisheries,  82-88;  statistics.  91. 

United  States,  56,  83-88  ;  map,  84. 

United    Kingdom,    203-t!04;    maps, 
85,  201. 

Japan,  409. 

Kussia,  310,  317;  map.  309. 

France,  236 ;  maps,  85,  234. 

Canada,  83,  85,  186-188 ;    map,  84 ; 
statistics  of  exports,  1 94. 

Newfoundland.  83,  193. 

China,  419. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  259-260. 

map  showing  sea  fisheries  of  west 
Europe,  85. 
Fiume,  285. 
Fives-Lille,  237. 
Flanders,  18.  242,  244,  246. 
Flax,  102. 

Russia,  102,  204,  239,  307-308. 

Belgium,  102,  239,  242. 

Ireland,  204. 
Flora,  map  showincr  distribution  of,  10. 
Florence,  289,  291,  293,  296,  297. 


Florida,  54,'  69,  88,  136. 
Flushing,  256. 
Folkestone,  198. 
Fonseca,  Gulf  of,  341. 
Food  products : 
vegetable,  57-72.       ' 
animal,  76-88. 

importing    countries,   163-164,   180, 
200-203,  210-211,  217-219,220-221, 
226,  232,  240,  242-243,  248,  258-259, 
270,  271,  274. 
Forest  products,  107-114. 
great  importance  of  industry  in,  107. 
See     Lumber,      Timber,     Cabinet 
Woods,  Rubber,  Turpentine,  Tar, 
Resin,  Dyestuft's,   Quinine,  Cork, 
Wood  Pulp. 
Forests,  107. 

map  showing  distribution  of,  10. 
statistics  giving  areas  in  chief  coun- 
tries, 114. 
Forestville,  Conn.,  146. 
Formosa,  71,  412-413. 
Fort  William,  185. 
Forwarding  trade : 
France,  240. 
The  Netherlands,  255. 
Denmark,  266. 
Belgium,  248. 
Fox,  89. 

Franc,  241,  249,  276. 
France,  228-241. 
agriculture,  231-234. 
wine  industry,  234-235. 
alimentary  pastes,  232. 
sugar-beet  industry,  232-233. 
fisheries,  236 ;  map,  234. 
tobacco  and  match  monopoly,  233. 
silk  manufactures,  238. 
iron  and  steel  industries,  236-237. 
porcelain,  leather,  and  other  manu- 
factures, 238-239. 
map  showing  distribution  of  indus- 
tries, 229. 
quality  of  manufactures,  2.37. 
^  map  of  interior  navitration,  231.. 
foreign  commerce,  240-241. 
statistics,  241. 

colonies.     See    Algeria,   Tunis,   In- 
do-China,   Guiana,    West    Indies, 
French  Congo,  Ivory  Coast,  Da- 
homey, Madagascar,  Sudan,  New 
Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  Tahiti, 
Mauritius.  Reunion.  Senegal. 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  226. 
Eraser,  river,  85. 187, 189. 
Fredericton,  N.  B.,  189. 
Fredrikstad,  261. 
Free  ports,  216,  266,  391,  429.  ' 
Freetown,  466. 
Freiburg,  271. 


•i 


INDEX 


487 


Freights,  39,  41-42. 

effect  of  cheap  rates,  41-42,  44-45, 
149,  173,  200-202,  224,  225-226,  252. 

rates  in  China,  421. 
Fremautle,  443. 
French  Congo,  465,  467. 
French  Guiana,  347,  348. 

map,  344. 

statistics,  353. 
Friendly  Islands,  452. 
Fruits,  68-69. 
Fuchau,  14,  422. 
Fur  felt,  89-90. 
Furs,  88-90. 

Kussia,  88-89,  308. 

Canada,  88, 188. 

Siberia,  88-89. 

principal  markets,  89. 

imports  and  manufactures  in  United 
States,  90. 
Fustic,  113. 

Gafsa,  457. 

Galatz,  320. 

Galena-Joplin,  134. 

Galieia,  Austrian,  281,  282,  284. 

Galveston,  95,  155,  157. 

Ganges,  17,  36,  397.  417. 

Ganges,  basin,  397,  400,  401. 

Garden  of  India,  401. 

Gas,  natural,  119  ;  map  showing  field 

of,  121. 
Gasoline,  121. 
Geelong,  438. 
Getie,  261,  262,  263. 
Gellivare,  261,  262. 
Geneva,  272,  273,  274. 
Geneva,  Lake,  270,  273. 
Genoa,  96,  288,  289,  295,  296. 
Georgetown,  347. 
Georgia,  54,  111. 
Georgian  Bay,  185. 
Geraldton,  443. 
German  Ea.st  Africa,  468. 
Germanic  races,  27-29. 
German  New  Guinea,  450. 
German  Southwest  Africa,  463,  467. 
Germany,  214-227. 

inland  navigation,  217,  225-226. 

sugar  beet,  219. 

potato  cultivation,  218. 

hops,  218-219. 

imports  of  foodstuff's,  217-219,  220- 
221. 

minerals,  221-222. 

iron  and  steel  manufactures,  222-223. 

Vjecr  making,  71,  219,  225,  226. 

shipbuilding,  225. 

textiles,  chemical,  and  other  indus- 
tries, 223-225. 

potteries,  225. 


Germany,  railroads,  224,  225-226. 
foreign  commerce,  226-227. 
statistics,  227. 

colonies.  See  Samoa,  Caroline  Is- 
lands, Ladrones,  Solomon  Islands, 
New  Guinea,  Togoland,  Came- 
roons,  German  Southwest  Africa, 
German  East  Africa. 

Ghats,  Eastern,  397. 

Ghats,  Western,  397,  403. 

Ghent,  246,  247,  248. 

Gibara,  179. 

Gibraltar,  460. 

Gin,  252. 

Ginger,  385,  430. 

Ginseng,  423. 

Girgenti,  289. 

Gironde,  17,  230. 

Glasgow,  199,  209. 

Gloucester,  Mass.,  83. 

Glucose,  68. 

Goa,  401. 

Goats,  271,  294,  423,  429,  456. 

G^d,  130-132  ;  dingram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 131  ;   map   showing   dis- 
tribution of,  12;  statistics  of  con- 
sumption   in    arts,   138;   coinage, 
132. 
South  Africa,  131,  474-475. 
United  States,  131-132;   diagram  of 
production,     131 ;     manufacture.s, 
133. 
Australia,  440,  441. 
Russia,  310,  390,  391. 
Canada,  189-190. 
Mexico,  332. 

Golden  Horn,  325. 

Golctta,  457. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  112. 

Gorlitz,  219,  224. 

Goteborg,  261,  262,  263. 

Gothland,  258. 

Governments,  influence  on  conmierce 
and  industry,  29-30,  149-151,  286, 
307,  324.  389,  394,  458. 

Graaf  Reinet,  474. 

Granada,  Nicaragua,  336,  341. 

Gran  Chaeo,  360,  36.3. 

Grand  Banks,  83.  84. 

Grand  Bassam,  466. 

Grand  Canal,  China,  421,  422. 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  111. 

Granite,  136,  137.  207. 

Grape-fruit.  384-385. 

Grapes.  68,  280,  300,  439-440,  472. 

Graphite,  136.  392,  404. 

Grass  areas.  18.  See  also  Downs,  Pam- 
pas. Llanos,  Savannas,  Great 
I'lains. 

Gratz,  281,  282,  283. 

Great  Barrier  Reef,  443. 


488 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    See  United 

Kingdom. 
Great  Karroo,  473,  474. 
Great  Lakes,  53,  56,  86,  139,  149,  182- 

183,  185,  187,  l«y. 
Great  Plains,  tl.  S.,  65,  78. 
Great  Plateaus.  U.  S.,  55. 
Great  Valley.  U.  S.,  55. 
Greece,  323-324. 

statistics,  327. 
Greenland,  121,  267. 
Greyniouth,  448. 
Greytown,  336,  341. 
Grimsby,  203. 
Gruyere  cheese,  270. 
Guadalajara,  334. 

Guam,  173. • 

Guanajuato,  332,  333. 
Guanica,  170. 
Guanta,  346. 
Guatemala,  337-339. 
Guatemala,  city,  337,  338. 
Guavas,  384,  385. 
Guayaina,  169. 
Guayaquil,  374.  375. 
Guayma.s,  330. 
Guianas,  347,  348. 

map,  344. 

statistics,  353. 
Guinea,  Gulf  of,  463. 
Gulf  Stream,  9. 
Gums,  111-112,447,  466. 
Gutta-percha,  113,  430,  433,  434. 
Gympie,  441. 

Haarlem,  251. 
Haddock,  203. 
Hatrue,  The,  252. 
Hainault,  247. 
Haiti,  383-384. 

statistics,  388. 
Halibut,  84,  186. 
Halifax,  England,  208. 
Halifax.  N.  S.,  182. 
Haiiiliuris:,  25,  158,  215,  216,  225;  map 

of  port,  216. 
Hamilton,  Bermuda,  387. 
Hamilton,  Ont.,  183. 
Hamite  races,  28. 
Han,  river,  421.  422. 
HaniT-ehau,  417,  421. 
HaniTn,  316,  317. 
llankau,  23,  420,  422. 
Hanover,  226. 
H  any  an,  420. 
Harar,  466. 

Harbors,  tvpes  of,  24-26. 
Hare.  90. 
Hartford,  100. 
Hartlepool,  198. 
Harwich,  203. 


Harz  Mountains,  220,  221,  222. 

Havana,  179,  180. 

Haverhill,  Mass.,  144. 

Havre,  23,  96,  228,  230,  233,  239,  240. 

Hawaii  (town),  171-172. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  170-173. 

advantageous  situation,  171. 

cane  sugar,  172-173. 

map,  171. 

trade  stati.'tties,  181. 
Heathen  people.s,  32. 
Helsingborg,  261. 
Ilelsingfors,  317. 
Hemp,  103,  293,  307. 
Hemp-seed  oil,  104. 
Henequen,  103,  330,  331,  385. 
Herberton,  439,  441,  443. 
Hermupolis,  324. 
Herring,  86  :  maps,  84,  85. 

Great  Britain,  86,  203-204. 

Norway,  86,  259-260. 

Netherlands,  252. 

Canada,  187-188. 
Herzegovina,  286,  324. 
Hickorv,  108. 
Hides,  144. 

Argentina,  77,  144,  365. 

Russia,  308,  316. 

India,  77,  144.  404. 

Paraguaj',  356. 

Colombia,  372. 

Brazil,  144,  350. 

statistics    of   imports    into    United 
States,  147. 
Highlands,  Scottish,  196. 
Hilo,  171. 

Himalayas,  15. 16,  396,  397. 
Hinoki  cypress,  409. 
Hiogo,  407. 
Hirschberg,  225. 
Hoang-ho,  17,  36,  414-415,  421. 
Hoboken,  159. 
Hodeida,  326. 

Holland.     See  Netherlands. 
Hoi  yoke,  104. 
Honda,  372.       " 
Hondo,  406,  407,  408. 
Honduras,  339-340 ;  map,  338. 
Honduras,  British,  340. 
Hongkonsr,  44,  176-177,  418,  424-425, 

430.  431,  432. 
Honolulu,  171,  173. 
Hook  of  Holland,  256. 
Hops,  71. 

Germany,   218-219;    map    showing 
distritiution  of,  218. 

Great  Britain,  210. 

Austria-IIunurarv,  280. 
Horse  meat,  82^  244. 
Horses,  map  showing  distribution  of, 
46. 


INDEX 


489 


Horses,  United  [States,  81-82 ;  statistics 
of  exports,  90. 

Russia,  308. 

Germany,  219. 

France,  2i55. 

Belgium,  244. 

Denmark,  265. 

Austria- Hungary,  280-281. 

Canada,  186. 
Huanciiaca,  379,  380. 
Huddersfleld,  208. 
Hu.lson  Bay,  182. 
Hudson  River,  84,  151. 
Hughenden,  437. 
Hull,  198,  20-3. 
Humber,  river,  198. 
Hunan,  419. 
Hungary: 

wheat  and  wheat  flour,  279. 

wine  industry,  280. 

horse  raising,  280-281. 

See  also  Austria-Hungary. 
Huron,  Lake,  187. 
Hydarabad,  399. 

Iceland,  267. 

Ichang,  421,  422. 

Idria,  282. 

Illinois,  56,  61,  119,  133,  140,  141,  145, 

146. 
Imperial  River,  367. 
India,  396-405. 

surface,  396-398. 

density  of  population,  map,  397. 

irrigation,  396. 

agriculture,    398,    400-403 ;    maps 
showing  distribution  of,  399,  401. 

textile  industries,  402. 

house  industries,  403. 

foreign  trade,  398,  404. 

statistics,  405. 
India  rubber,  112. 

Brazil,  348,  349,  351. 

tropical  Africa,  463, 464-465, 466,  467, 
468. 

Central  America,  336,  338,  341,  342. 

Peru,  376. 

Bolivia,  .380,  381. 

Colombia,  370,  372. 

Ecuador,  375. 
Indiana,  56,  61,  119,  140,  146. 
Indianapoli.s,  24 
Indian  Desert,  397. 
Indian  Ocean,  20,  397. 
Indigo,  113,  340,  390,  402-403,  404. 
Indo-China,  French.  431-432. 

See  also  Cochin-Cliina,    Cambodia, 
Annam.  Tonkin. 
Indo-Kuropeans,  27-29. 
Indus,  397. 
Indus,  ba.Hin,  396,  397,  400,  401. 


Inland  waterways,  importance  of,  17 
152,  191-192,  217,  230-231,  247, 
250-251. 

Iowa,  61,  145. 

Iquique,  368. 

Iquitos,  349,  377,  382. 

Irawadi,  404. 

Ireland,  196-197,  202. 
llax  and  linen  industry,  204,  209. 

Eotatoes,  196-197. 
eer  brewing,  210. 
commerce,  199. 
Irkutsk,  390,  391,  392. 
Iron,  121-126 ;    map    showing    world 
distribution    of,    13:    diagram    of 
world  production,  122;  world  con- 
sumption per  capita,  122. 
United  States,  56,  121-126;  maps  of 
mining  centers,  123,  125;  maps  of 
shipping  and  receiving  ports,  123, 
124;  statistics,  128. 
Great  Britain,  205-207,  209  ;  value  of 

exports,  213. 
Germany,  221-222. 
Luxemburg,  221,  222,  236,  249. 
Russia  and  Finland,  310. 
Sweden,  261. 
Spain,  302. 
Mexico,  332. 
Iron  manufactures : 
United  States,  141-143. 
Great  Britain,  206,  209. 
Germany,   222-223;    map    showing 

centers  of,  223. 
France,  236-237. 
Belgium,  245-246. 
Irrigation : 

India,  396-398,  400. 
Egypt,  453. 
Spain,  299. 
Italy,  291. 

United  States,  50-51. 
Russian  Central  Asia,  393-394,  395. 
Mexico,  329. 
Australia,  440. 
Irtysh,  river,  392. 
Iserlohn,  223. 

Islands,  influence  on  commerce,  18. 
Ispahan.  428. 
Istria,  277. 
Italy,  288-297. 
seiljTnrts,  288-290  ;  map.  289. 
agriculture.  28S,  292-293  ;  map  show- 
ing distribution  of,  290. 
wine  industry,  293. 
raw  silk  f)roduction,  294-295. 
marble  quarries,  295. 
suljiliur,  295. 
foreign  eonnnerce,  297. 
map  showing  density  of  jinjpulation, 
291. 


490 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Italy,    manufactures,    295-297;    map 
showing  distribution  of,  296. 
statistics,  297. 
Ivigtut,  267. 

Ivory,  248,  455,  465,  466. 
Ivory  Coast,  466. 
Ivory  nuts,  372,  375. 

Jacksonville,  155,  157. 

Jade,  424. 

Jatfa,  326. 

Jaila  Mountains,  305. 

Jamaica,  385. 

population,  387. 
Japan,  406-413. 

agricultural  products,  407-409 ;  maps 
showing  distribution  of,  407,  410. 

lack  of  minerals,  411. 

porcelain  wares,  411. 

growth  of  manufactures,  411-412. 

transportation,  412. 

foreign  trade,  412. 

earthquakes,  406. 

statistics,  413. 
Japan  wax,  410. 
Jaroslav,  313. 
Jarrah  wood,  440. 
Java,  113,  179,  254,  433,  434. 
Jedda,  326. 
Jemmapes,  246. 
Jersey  City,  68,  136, 159. 
Jerusalem,  326. 
Jews,  28. 
Jibuti,  466. 

Johannesburg,  24,  467,  471. 
Juanii  Diaz,  170. 
Jujuy,  364,  365,  380. 
J  uncos,  170. 

Jura  Mountains,  268,  270,  271,272,  274. 
Jute,  103,  399,  402. 
Jutigalpa,  340. 
Jutland,  216,  264,  266. 

Kabul,  429. 

Kaiser  VVilhelm  Canal,  43,  216. 

Kaiser  Wilhelms  Land,  450. 

Kalaupapa,  171. 

Kalawao,  171. 

Kama,  basin,  310. 

Kanakas  labor,  450,  451. 

Kano,  467. 

Kansas,  60,  61,  134,  145. 

Kansas  City,  80, 151,  155. 

Kaolin,  137,  411. 

Karachi,  399,  400. 

Karri  wood,  440. 

Karst,  278,  322. 

Karun  Eiver,  428. 

Kash^ar,  423. 

Kassel,  226. 

Katsena,  467. 


Kauri  gum,  447. 
Kauri  pine,  108,  447. 
Kazan,  24,  313. 
Kazanlik,  321-322. 
Kelung,  412. 
Kenia,  Mount,  6. 
Kennebec,  river,  84. 
Kentucky,  55,  72. 
Kerman,  428. 
Kerosene,  119. 

United  States,  119-120 ;  value  of  ex- 
ports, 128. 

Russia,  119, 120,  393. 
Keweenaw,  56, 129. 
Key  West,  Fla.,  73,  88. 
Khaibar  Pass,  399. 
Kharkof,  313,  314. 
Kharkof,  province,  314. 
Khartum,  455. 
Kherson,  316. 
Khiva,  391,  394,  395. 
Kiakhta,  391. 
Kiao-chau  Bay,  425. 
Kidderminster,  209. 
Kief,  312-313,  314. 
Kief,  province,  314. 
Kiel,  215. 
Kiel  Bay,  43. 

Kimberley,  Cape  Colony,  24, 133,475. 
Kimberley  Di.striet,  W.  Australia,  441. 
Kingston,  Ontario,  183. 
Kioto,  407. 
Kiusiu,  408,  411. 
Kiyaki  wood,  409. 
Khiireufurt,  282. 
Klondike,  189. 
Kobe,  407,  408. 
Kokan,  395. 
Kola  nuts,  463,  466. 
Konigsberg,  216. 
Konigslmtte,  222. 
Kootenai,  189. 
Korea,  432. 
Kostroma,  313. 
Krasnovodsk,  394,  395. 
Krasnoyarsk,  391. 
Krefeld,  102,  223. 
Krefeld,  district,  225. 
Krui)p  iron  works,  223. 
Kumiss,  82. 
Kurgan,  391. 
Kushk,  394. 

La  Celba,  346. 

La  Guaira,  346. 

La  Libertad,  340. 

La  Luz,  469. 

La  Paz,  Bolivia.  379,  380- 

La  Paz,  Lower  California,  328,  330. 

La  Plata,  river,  358,  360,  362. 

La  Plata,  town,  364. 


INDEX 


491 


La  Union,  341. 

Labor,  33-34,  165,  412,  420. 

Labrador,  7,  i',  86,  184,  188. 

Labrador  current,  9. 

Lacquer  tree,  409-410. 

Lacquer  wares,  410. 

Ladoga-Neva  system,  314. 

Lagos,  467. 

Lagos  (town),  467. 

Lahore,  397,  401. 

Lancasliire,  207. 

Lancashire  coal  Held,  with  map,  206. 

Lapland,  260. 

Lapps,  260. 

Launceston,  441. 

Lawrence,  Mass.,  97,  99. 

Le  Creuzot,  237.   , 

Lead,  135,  245,  282. 

Leadville,  24. 

Lebu,  367. 

Leeds,  206,  208,  209. 

Leeward  Islands,  386  ;  population,  387. 

Leghorn,  288,  289. 

Leicester,  209. 

Leicestershire,  210. 

Leipzig,  89,  226. 

Ijemberg,  284. 

Lemons,'  293-294,  300. 

Lena,  river,  390,  392. 

Leon,  341. 

Lesser  Antilles,  385. 

Lethbridge,  190. 

Levant,  228,  238,  285,  288,  326. 

Levuka,  451. 

Lewiston,  97. 

Lhasa,  424. 

Liberia,  464. 

Lieata,  289. 

Liege,  244,  246. 

Liegnitz,  224. 

Lille,  233,  237,  239. 

Lily  bulbs,  387. 

Lima,  377,  378. 

Limburg,  246. 

Limerick,  199. 

Limes,  293,  294. 

Lime.Ktone,  13«,  137,  190,  205,  207,  245, 

271. 
Limoges,  238. 
Ljnga,  428. 

Linseed,  102, 104,  315,  359,  363,  402. 
Lisbon,  .303. 
Lithgow,  440. 
I/itliowranhic  stone,  222. 
Liverpool,  25,  96.  158, 182, 199,  208,  210. 
Livingston,  338. 
Llama,  45,  46,  377. 
Llanos,  18,  343,  345,  370. 
Lioro,  370. 
Loanda,  467. 
Loango,  467. 


Lobster,  87-88,  187,  193. 

Locle,  Le,  272. 

Lodz,  312,  313. 

Lofoten  islands,  259. 

Logrwood,  113,  340,  384. 

Loire,  river,  230. 

Lombardy,  289,  290-291,  292,  294,295, 

296. 
London,  14,  89, 118, 133,  136,  195, 198, 
211,  254. 

map  showing  comparative-size  of,  21. 
Londonderry,  N.  S.,  190. 
Long  Island,  87,  88. 
Long  Island  Sound,  157. 
Lontar,  434. 
Lorenzo  Marqucz,  467,  471,  and  Fig. 

154. 
Los  Angeles,  140. 
Louisburg,  N.  S.,  182. 
Louisiana,  65,  67,  72,  135. 
Louisville,  151,  155,  157. 
Lou  vain,  247. 
Lowell,  24,  97,  99,  100. 
Lowestoft,  203' 
Lowlands,  Scottish,  196. 
Liibeck,  215,  216-217. 
Lubricating  oils,  121. 
Lucca,  293." 
Lucknow,  401. 
Ludwig  Canal,  217,  318. 
Lumber,  107-111. 

United  States,  1U9-111  ;  map  show- 
ing distribution  of  industry,  109  ; 
statistics,  114.  -       ' 

Canada,  107,  110,  188-1S9. 

Russia,  110,  308. 

Norway  and  Sweden.  110,  260-261. 

countries  importing  most,  110. 
Luxembura-,  221,  222,  245,  249;  maps, 

243,  253. 
Luzern,  274. 
Luzcrn,  lake,  273. 
Luzon,  174-175. 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  73. 
Lynn,  144. 
Lvnx,  188. 

Lyons,  23,  102,  230,  238,  239,  456. 
Lys,  Vallev  of  the,  243. 
Lyttelton,  445-446. 

map  of  harbor,  26. 

Maas,  river,  251,  255. 

-Macao,  425. 

Macclesfield,  208. 

Maceio,  349. 

Mackay,  439. 

Mackenzie  River,  184, 192. 

Mackerel,  86,  203-204,  259-260. 

nuips    shfiwing   distribution   of,   84, 
85. 
Madagascar,  108,  468. 


492 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Madder,  113,  455. 
Madeira  Islands,  469. 
Madeira,  river,  381. 
Madras,  399. 
Madrid,;303. 

Mf^tlalena,  river,  372,  373. 
Magdeburg,  226. 
Magellan,  Strait  of,  368. 
Maguey  (American  aloe),  331. 
Magyars,  27. 

Mahogany,  108,  110,  332,  339. 
Mahoning  Valley,  125. 
Maidstone,  210. 

Maine,  25,  86,  109,  145,  146,  189. 
Main-Rhine,  217. 
Main,  river,  318. 
Maipo  Kiver,  367. 

Maize,  61-63  ;  diagram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 63 ;  map  showing  distri- 
bution of,  62. 

United  States,  55,  61-63 ;  statistics  of 
production  and  value  of  exports, 
74. 

Central  America,  337. 

Kumauia,  320.    ■ 

Argentina,  363. 

Mexico,  331. 

Australia,  439. 

Africa,  454,  472. 
Makassar,  434. 
Malacca,  Straits  of,  430. 
Malaga,  303. 
Malanje,  467. 
Malayans,  27. 

Malay  Archipelago,  174,  430. 
Malay  Peninsula,  414,  429. 
Maldonado,  360. 
Malmo,  261,  262,  263. 
Malta,  456,  459,  460. 
Managua,  341. 
Manaos.  349,  351. 
Manchester,  96,  208,  210. 
Manchester  Canal,  43. 
Manchester,  N.  11.,  97,  99,  142. 
Manchuria,  391,  419,  421-423. 
Mandalay,  404. 
Manganese,  136,  179. 
Mangoes,  384-385. 
Manila.  176. 
Manila  Bay,  176-177. 
Manila  hemp,  103,  175-176. 
Manioc  plant,  351,  356,  464. 
Manitoba,  18.3-184,  185,  186. 
Mannlieim,  226. 
Manta,  375. 
Manufactures : 

causes  influencing  distribution  of, 
139-140,  225. 

importance  of  proximity  of  coal  and 
iron,  116,  205,  212,  221. 

effect  of  lack  of  minerals,  252,  266. 


Manufactures : 
importance  of  foreign  markets,  1G4- 

165,  222,  249. 
conditions  that  gave  manufacturing 

pre-eminence,  141,  212,  222,  225- 

226,  245. 
countries  having  few,  440-442. 
impediments  to,  281,  288. 
Manzanillo,  330. 
Maple,  108. 
Maple  sugar,  68. 
Maracaibo,  346,  372. 
Maracaibo,  Lake,  346. 
Maranhao,  349. 
Maraschino,  284. 
Marble,  137,  245,  295,  345. 
Maremma,  291. 
Maritza  River,  325. 
Maritza,  valley,  322. 
Mariupol,  316. 
Mark,  227. 

Marquesas,  islands,  171 
Marquette,  123. 
Marquette  Range^  123. 
Mai-sala,  289. 
Marsala  wine,  293. 
Marseilles,  25,  176,  228,  230,  233,  237, 

239,  428,  457. 
Marshall,  islands,  449,  452. 
Marten,  89, 188. 
Maryland,  69,  140,  145-146. 
Masaya,  341. 
Mash'ad,  428. 
Mashonaland,  468. 
Maskat,  429.' 
Massachusetts,  96,  104,   113,  133,  134, 

144. 
Massachusetts  Bay,  51. 
Masulipatam,  399. 
Matadi,  464,  465. 
Matamoras,  330. 
Matto  Grosso,  349. 
Maturin,  346. 
Maui,  171. 
Mauritius,  468. 
Mayaguez,  169. 
Mazatlan,  330. 
Mealies,  472. 
Mecca,  326. 
Mechlin,  247. 
Medellin,  373. 

Mediterranean,  88,  294;  Fig.  154. 
Meissen,  225. 
Mekong  River  delta,  431. 
Melanesia,  450. 
Melbourne,  438,  440,  443. 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  109,  111,  151-152,  470. 
Menam,  river,  431. 
Menain,  valley,  431. 
Mendoza,  province,  360,  363. 
Mendoza,  town,  364. 


INDEX 


493 


Menhaden,  84. 

Mercedes,  360,  364. 

Merchant  marine,  statistics  of,  48. 

United  Kingdom,  210. 

Germany,  225. 

Norway,  262-264. 
Mericani  cloth,  465-466.  ~- — 

Merida,  330. 
Merrimac,  river,  97. 
Mersey,  river,  199. 
Merv  oasis,  394,  395. 
Mesopotamia,  326. 
Messina,  288,  289. 
Meta,  river,  346,  373. 
Meuse,  river,  242,  245,  247. 
Mexico,  328-335. 

agriculture,  328,  331. 

agricultural  map,  329. 

production  of  metals,  332-333. 

map  showing  mining  centers,  333. 

map  of  railroads,  330. 

statistics,  334-335. 
Mexico,  city,  334. 
Mexico,  Gulf  of,  53,  332. 
Michigan,  56,  109,  140,  146. 
Michigan,  lake,  122,  124,  152. 
Milan,  274,  289,  291,  295,  296. 
Milford,  198-199. 

Milk,  79,  146,  202,  265,  270-271,  308. 
Millet,  400,  423. 
Milreis,  354. 

Milwaukee,  124,  152,  153. 
Minas  Geraes,  348,  350-351. 
Mindanao,  174-175. 

Minerals,  116-138  ;  maps  showing  dis- 
tribution" of,  12,  13.  See  Iron, 
Coal,  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Pe- 
troleum, Salt,  Zinc,  Lead,  Alu- 
minium, Tin,  Nickel,  Manganese, 
Quicksilver,  Sulphur,  Phosphate, 
Platinum,  Cobalt,  Saltpeter, 
Graphite,  Stone,  Nitrate. 
Mink,  89, 188. 

Minneapolis,  24,  61,  139,  151. 
Minnesota,  18,  56,  60,  90,  109. 
Mississippi,  river,  53, 151,  153. 
Mi.s.sissippi,  valley,  55,  67,  81,  139,  143, 

161. 
Mi.ssouri  Kiver,  118,  155. 
Missouri,  State,  61,  134,  146.     . 
Mobangi  River,  467. 
Mobile,  155. 
Mocha,  326. 
Mocha  coffee,  326,  429. 
Mogador,  459. 

Mohanunedans,  32,  33,  324,  459,  461. 
Molasses,  68,  179,  347,  386. 
Moldau-Elbe,  284. 
MoUciido,  378,  379,  380. 
Molokai,  171. 
Moluccas,  434. 


Mombasa,  468. 

Monev,  34-35,  132,  133. 

Mongolia,  417,  419,423. 

Mongolians,  62. 

Monrovia,  464. 

Mons,  246. 

Monsoons,  20,  397,  415^36;  map,  20. 

Montana,  129,  152,  153,  190.        • 

Montenegro,  322-323,  324. 

Monterey,  Mexico,  334. 

Montevideo,  355,  359-360. 

Montgomery,  Ala.,  54,  111. 

Montreal,  182,  184,  185,  189,  191,  192. 

Moonta,  441. 

Morava,  valley,  321. 

Moravia,  281,  283. 

Moravian  Gate,  278. 

Morcsnet,  245. 

Morocco,  29,  30.  88,  459-460. 

Morocco  Ctown),  459. 

Moscow,  24,  306,  312,  313,  391,  428. 

Moselle,  river,  218,  221. 

Moselle  wine,  218. 

Motala,  262. 

Mossamedes,  467. 

Mostaganem,  457. 

Motagua,  river,  337. 

Mother-of-in-arl,  332,  4.50,  452,  434,  441. 

Mount  Morgai],  441. 

Mountains,  influence  of,  15-17. 

Mozambique,  468. 

Mulberry,  101.  238,  295,  407,  415. 

Mules,  46,  82.  235,  281,  301,  326,339, 

343,  364,  372,  374. 
Mulhausen,  223,224. 
Multan,  400. 
Munich,  226. 
Murano,  297. 

Murchison  gold  field,  44-3. 
Murghab,  river,  395. 
Murman  coast,  310. 

.Musccivado  (  unrefined  sugar),  385-386. 
Musk,  424. 

Muskegon,  Mich.,  111. 
Musk  rat,  89,  90,  188. 
Mustard,  430. 
Mutton : 

United  States,  81. 

Australia.  438. 

Argentina,  361,  438. 

New  Zealand,  438. 

Great  Britain,  202-203. 

Uruguay,  359. 
Muzo,  373. 
Mysore,  399. 

Nagasaki,  407,  411. 
Nagpur,  401. 
Naguabo,  169., 
Namur,  246. 
Nanaimo,  190. 


494 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Nancy,  237. 

Nanking,  417. 

Nantes,  228,  230,  233.    ~"~ — ~— 

Naples,  288,  289,  296,  297. 

Narragansett  Bay,  97. 

Nashua,  97. 

Natal,  474,  475. 

Natal,  Brazil,  349. 

Natural  gas,  119 ;  map  showing  field 

of,  121. 
Naugatuck,  valley,  130. 
Nebraska,  55,  60,  61-63,  65. 
—Nelson,  river,  182. 
Nerchinsk,  391. 
Netherlands,  The,  250-257. 
cattle  raising,  250,  251-252. 
cheese  a£h  butter,  252. 
transpojifation,  250-252,  255. 
lack  ofbuilding  material,  252,  254. 
tobacco  manufactures,  252,  254. 
commerce,  254-256. 
statistics,  256-257. 
maps,  243,  253. 

colonies,  254.  See  also  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  Banka,  Billiton,  Celebes, 
Moluccas  (Lontar),  Guiana,  West 
Indies,  New  Guinea. 
Neuchatel,  272. 
Neuchatel,  Lake,  273. 
Neufchatel  cheese,  239. 
Neuss,  223. 
Neva,  314. 
Nevada,  135. 
New  Amsterdam,  347. 
New  Bedford,  97. 

New  Brunswick,  187,  188,  189,  191. 
New  Caledonia,  136. 
.;>^"ew  England,  54,  96,  09, 104,  137,  140. 
"'   New  Gla.sgow,  N.  S.,  190. 
New  Guinea,  254,  450. 
New  Hampshire,  109. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  146. 
New  Hebrides,  450. 
New  Jersey,  54,  99,  102,  118,  133,  140. 
New  Margelan,  395. 
New  Orieans,  25-26,  68.  95,  103,  155, 

160. 
New  South  Wales,  4-37,  438,  439,  440, 

441,  4.50. 
New  Westminster,  182. 
New  York,  100,  104,  111,  118,  136,  141, 
142,  145,  146, 158-159  ;  map  show- 
ing comparative  size  of,  21. 
New  York  Bav,  25,  51. 
New  York  State,  73,  99.  102, 104,  137, 

140,  14.3,  14.5-146. 
New  Zealand,  445-448. 
sheep  and  wool,  445,  447. 
wheat,  447. 
minerals,  447^48. 
foreign  commerce,  448. 


New  Zealand,  statistics,  448. 

map,  446. 

flax,  447. 
Newbern,  N.  C,  111. 
Newca.stle,  England.  206. 
Newca.stle,    New    South    Wales,   440, 

443. 
Newfoundland,  193. 

fisheries,  83, 193 ;  value  of  catch,  91, 
92. 

statistics,  194. 
Newhaveri,  l98. 
Newport  News,  143. 
Niagara  Kiver,  110. 
Nicaragua,  341-342 ;  map,  338. 

rainfall,  336. 
Nicaragua  Canal,  44,  341. 
Nicaragua,  Lake,  341. 
Nickel,  136,  190,  450. 
Nicolaetf,  313.  316. 
Niemen,  river,  305. 
Niger,  river,  467,  Fig.  154. 
Nigeria,  467. 
Niigata,  407. 

Nile,  17,  18,  36,  431,  453,  454,  461. 
Nile,  Blue,  453. 
Nile,  White,  453. 
Nish,  321. 
Nishapur,  134,  428. 
Nitrate,  136,  366. 
Niu-chuang,  422. 
Nizhni-Novgorod,  89,  314. 
Nonni,  river,  423. 
Norfolk,  23. 
Normandy,  235. 
Norrkoping,  261,  262. 
North  Cape,  262. 
North   Holland  Canal,  255-256 ;  map 

of,  43. 
North  Island,  New  Zealand,  447. 
Norway,  258-264. 

fisheries,  259-260. 

lumber,  260-261. 

merchant  marine,  262-264. 

statistics,  267. 

maps,  260,  263. 
Nottingham,  206. 
Noumea,  450. 

Nova  Scotia,  185, 187, 189,  190. 
Nuremberg,  221,  226. 
Nutmeg,  430,  434,  450. 
Nutria,  90.  346. 
Nyassa,  Lake,  463,  468. 

Oak,  108.  220. 
Oamaru,  446. 

Oats,  63 ;  diagram  of  world  produc- 
tion, 64. 
United  States,  63;  value  of  exports, 

75. 
Kussia,  307. 


INDEX 


495 


Oats,  Germany,  218. 
France,  232. 
United  Kingdom,  202. 
Austria-Hungary,  280. 

Oaxaea,  334. 

Ob  River,  390,  392. 

Oceania,  449^52. 
See  also  Hawaiian  Islands,  Melane- 
sia, New  Caledonia,  New  Hebrides, 
Solomon  Islands,  Fiji  Islands,  Sa- 
moan  Islands,  Tonga  Group,  Ta- 
hiti, Marshall  Islands,  Caroline 
Islands,  Ladrones. 

Odense,  266. 

Oder,  river,  215,  278. 

Odessa,  306,  313,  316. 

Ofoten  Fiord,  201. 

Ohio,  55,  61,  69,  72,  120,  124,  125,  137, 
140,  146. 

Ohio,  river,  151. 

Oil  cake,  103-104. 

Oil  City,  120. 

Oil  palm,  463,  466. 

Oil  seeds,  103-104,  230,  456. 

Oils,  lubricating,  121. 

Oldham,  208. 

Oleomargarine,  79. 

Olive  oil,  293,  300,  459. 

Olives,  293,  300,  456. 

Omaha,  80,  152. 

Oman,  429. 

Omsk,  391. 

Onions,  69,  387,  454. 

Ontario,  119,  184,  186,  188-189,  191. 

Ontario,  Lake,  86,  110,  152. 

Oolong  tea,  412. 

Opals,  1.34. 

Opium,  399,  402,  421,  423,  425,  428. 

Oporto,  303. 

Opossum,  89. 

Oran,  457. 

Orange  Free  State,  473. 

Orange  River  Colony,  471,  472. 

Oranges,  293-294,  300,  356,  384-385. 

Oregon,  60,  87.  IVA. 

Orenburg,  313,  391. 

Orinoco,  river,  345,  346,  373. 

Oruro,  380. 

O.saka,  407. 

Ostrich    feathers,  29,  455,  473,   475- 
476. 

Oswego,  110. 

Ottawa,  188-189. 

Ottawa,  river,  189. 

Otter,  89,  188. 

Overproduction,  effect  of,  33-34,  350. 

Owen  Sound,  185. 

Ox,  45,  46.  474. 

Oysters,  87,  236,  252. 
value  of  fisheries,  92. 
map  showing  distribution  of,  85. 


Pacific  Islands.     See  Oceania. 

Pago-Pago,  173. 

Palermo,  2bS,  289,  296. 

Palm  oil,  463,  464,  465,  466,  467. 

Palmer  gold  field,  443. 

Palmerston,  443. 

Pampas,  18,  360. 

Panama,  373. 

Panama  Bay,  373. 

Pamuiia  Canal,  44. 

Patiania  hats,  375,  378. 

i'anaiiia,  l.-thmus  of,  341,  368,  370. 

Paper,  104-105. 

value    of    manufacture    in    United 
States,  147. 
Para,  349,  351,  381. 
Para  rublaer,  351. 
I'araguay,  355-358. 

forest  resources,  356. 

yerba  mate,  355-356. 

map,  357. 

statistics,  368. 
Paraguay,  river,  355,  356,  360,  362. 
Paramaribo,  347. 
Parana,  province,  364. 
Parana,  river,  355,  356,  360,  362. 
Parana  (town),  364. 
Paris,  23,  233,  238,  239,  456. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 

map  of  river  valleys  converging  on, 
23. 
Patagonia,  360,  363. 
Paterson,  102,  142. 
Patna,  402. 
Patras,  324. 

Peaches,  68-69,  447,  472. 
Peanuts,  463,  466. 
Pearis,  426-429,  441,  450. 
Peas,  159. 

Pe-chili,  Gulf  of,  19,  422. 
Pei-ho,  422. 
Pekin,  422,  423. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 
Pemba  island,  430,  468. 
Penang,  430. 
Pennsylvania,  73,  99. 102, 109,  118, 119, 

124,  137,  140,  141,  146. 
Pepper,  430,  432,  433,  434. 
Perm,  313. 

Pernambuco,  349,  350. 
Persia,  427-429. 

rivalry  for  its  trade,  427. 

attar  of  roses,  428. 

turquoise  mines,  428. 

lack   of  transportation  and  capital, 
427. 
Persian  Gulf,  326,  332,  427,  428. 
Persian  lamb,  K9. 
Perth,  Western  A  ustralia,  443. 
Peru,  37fi-.379. 

coca,  377. 


496 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Peru,  quinine,  376. 

minerals,  377,  378. 

cotton,  377. 

Panama  hats,  378. 

map,  371. 

statistics,  382. 
Peshawar,  399. 
Petersburg,  Va.,  73. 
Petroleum,    119-121 ;    map    showing 
distribution   of,   13;   statistics    of 
production,  127. 

Russia,  119,  393. 

United  States,  119-120;  maps  show- 
ing areas  of  production  in,  120, 121  ; 
value  of  exports,  128. 

Austria-Hungary,  282. 
Philadelphia,  23,  25-26,  68,  99, 100, 104, 
111,  140,  141,  142,  14.3,  159-160. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 
Philipi)eville,  457. 
Philippine  Islands,  174-177. 
Phorniium,  447. 
Phosphates,  136,  -548,  457,  458. 
Piedmont,  295,  296. 
Pilcoinavo,  360. 
Pilsun,  2S0,  282,  283. 
Pimento,  385. 
Pimlico  Sound,  25. 
Pine,  107-108.     See  Lumber. 
Pineapples,  69,  356,  384-385. 
Piombino,  289. 
Pirseus,  323,  324. 

Pittsburg,  23,  124,  125, 141,  142, 151. 
Plains,  advantages  of,  17-18. 
Platinum,  136,  310. 
Plymouth,  195. 
Po  River,  292. 
Po  valley,  293,  294. 
Point  d'Alen^on  lace,  239. 
Pola,  284. 

Poland,  306,  310,  312,  313,  314. 
Polar  Circle,  389. 
Poltava,  313,  314. 
Polynesians,  27. 
Ponce,  169,  170. 
Pontine  Marshes,  291. 
Poplar,  104. 

Popocatepetl,  Mount,  332. 
Poppy,  402,  428. 
Population,  influence  on  commerce  of 

density  of,  36. 
Pork : 
United  States,  80-81;  map  showing 
packing  centers,  80;   statistics  of 
exports,  90-91. 
Germany,  220. 
Port  Arthur,  391,  413. 
Port  A  ugusta,  443. 
Port  au  Prince,  384. 
Port  Chalmers,  445. 
Port  Darwin,  443. 


Port  Elizabeth,  470,  471. 
Port  Pirie,  441,  443. 
Port  Said,  453. 
Port  wine,  303. 
Portland,  Me.,  182. 
Portland,  Oregon,  51,  157. 
Porto  Alegre,  349. 
Porto  Empedocle,  289. 
Porto  Rico,  168-170;  map,  169. 
Portugal,  303-304. 
wine,  303. 
cork,  301,  303. 
statistics,  304. 

colonies.     See    Angola,    Portuguese 
East  Africa,  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
Madeira,  Canaries,  Azores. 
Portuguese  East  Africa,  467-468. 
Posen,  226. 
Posts,  47-48. 
Potato,  69. 
Germaiiv,  218. 
Ireland,'l9fi-197. 
Algeria,  456. 
Belgium,  244. 
Bermuda,  387. 
Austria-Hungary,  280. 
Russia,  308. 

use   in  the   manufacture  of  spirits, 
219,  225,  247. 
Potosi,  380. 
Poultry,  82. 
Belgium,  244. 
China,  419. 

Austria-Hungary,  281. 
Italy,  294. 

imports  into  United  Kingdom,  186, 
203. 
Prague,  215,  283,  284. 
Precious  stones,  133-134. 
Pressburg,  284. 
Preston,  208. 
Pretoria,  467. 
Pribylof  Islands,  89. 
Progreso,  330. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  99, 133, 142. 
Prussia,  railroads,  224. 
Puebla,  332,  334. 
Puerto  Barrios,  338. 
Puerto  Berniudez,  377. 
Puerto  Cabello,  345,  346. 
Puerto  Cortez,  339. 
Puerto  Union,  342. 
Puerto  Montt,  367. 
Puerto  Plata,  384. 
Puget  Sound,  51, 157,  173. 
Pulque,  331. 

Punjab,  398,  399,  400,  402. 
Puno,  378. 

Punta  Arena.s,  Chile,  368. 
Puiita  Arenas,  Costa  Rica,  342. 
Pyrenees,  16,  298. 


INDEX 


49Y 


Qu'Appelle  vallev,  184. 

Quebec,  city,  189,"  191. 

Quebec,  province,  IS-i,  185,  188,  191. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  190. 

Queensland,  43,"),  437,  438,  439,  441,  443, 

400. 
Queenstown,  41. 
Quercitron,  113. 
Quezaltenango,  338. 
Quicksilver   (mercury),  135-136  ;  sta- 
tistics of  production,  13s. 

Spain,  301. 

United  States,  136. 

Austria- Hungary,  282. 

Mexico,  332,  333. 

Russia,  310. 
Quilimane,  468. 
Quinine,  113,  376,  433. 
Quito,  375. 

Rabbits,  89,  90. 
Raccoon,  89,  90. 
Races,  classification  of,  27. 

map  showing  distribution  of,  28. 
Railroads,  44. 

map  of   important    and    projected, 
Fig.  1. 

Trans-Siberian,  44,  91. 

diagram  showing  growth  of,  154. 
Rainfall,  7. 

map  showing  amount  and  distribu- 
tion of,  8. 
Raisins,  69,  439. 

Ralick  Island,  map  of  harbor,  26. 
Rama,  river,  341. 
Ramie,  103,  356,  418. 
Hantfoon,  404. 
Rattan  palm,  430. 
Ravens  wood,  441,  443. 
Ruwson,  364. 
Red  River,  188. 
Red  Sea,  429. 

Refrigeration,   its    importance   in   ex- 
tending commerce,  42,  68,  76-77, 
81,  83. 
Reich  enberg,  282. 
Reims,  23C. 
Reindeer,  45,  46. 
Religions,  influence  on  commerce,  33, 

map  sliowing  centers  of  prevailing. 
32. 
Remscheid,  223. 
Resht,  427,  428. 
Resins,  111-112. 
Reunion,  468. 
Reval,  317. 

Rhine,  province,  225,  226. 
Rhine,  rivcirJIJJlS,  225,  278,  318. 
Rhine,  valley,  214,  215,  218. 
Rhine  wine,' 218. 

Rhine-  Westplialia  region,  222, 223, 226. 
32 


Rhine- Westphalia  region,  map  show- 
ing distribution  of  industries  in, 
223.  _ 
Rhodelsland,  104,  113. 
Rhodesia,  475. 
Rhone,  river,  230-231. 
Rhone,  valley,  238. 

Rice,  65 ;   map   showing  distribution 
of,  66. 

India,  400. 

Burma,  400,  404. 

Siam,  431. 

Japan,  407,  408,  409. 

French  Indo- China,  431-432. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  172. 

China,  414,  415. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  433. 
Riclielieu  Canal,  192. 
Richmond,  Va.,  25,  73,  143,  157. 
Riesengebirge,  225. 
Riga,  317. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  348,  349,  350,  470. 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  state,  348,  349. 
Rio  de  la  Plata  countries,  220, 225,  235, 

350,  351,  359-360. 
Rio  Grande,  169. 
Rio  f Grande  do  Norte,  349. 
Rio  Guayas,  374. 
Rio  Ncirro,  351. 
Rioja,  364. 
Rivers,  17. 

map  of    most   important   navigable 
rivers.  Fig.  1. 
Rochdale,  2087 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  141,  144,  145. 
Kockhanipton,  443. 
Rocks,  influence  on  human  life,  14. 
Rocky  Mountains,  17,  55,  60,  184. 
Romanic  races,  27. 
Rome,  16,  292,  297. 

map  showing  comparative  size,  21. 
Root  crops,  69. 
Roquefort  clieese,  235. 
Rosario,  364. 
Rossland,  B.  C,  190-191. 
Rostof,  316. 

Rotterdam,  217,  252,  254,  255,  256. 
Roubaix,  239. 
Rouble,  317. 
Rouen,  228,  230,  239. 
Rubies,  134,  404. 
Ruhr,  river,  220. 
Ruhr  coal  field,  221,  222. 
Rum,  337,  345,  347,  364,  385. 
Rumania,  318-320,  324. 

statistics,  326. 
Rupee,  405. 
Russia,  305-317. 

agriculture,  307-308;  map  showing 
distribution  of,  309. 

stock  raising,  308-310. 


498 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Kussia,  lumber,  308. 

niiuerals,  310  ;  map,  311. 

climatic  map,  SOtJ. 

black-earth  region,  309. 

interior  navigation,  Sll,  314;  map, 
311. 

fairs,  314. 

domestic  industries,  312. 

beet  sugar  and  refineries,  308,  314. 

distilleries,  313. 

manufactures,  312-314. 

tea  consumption,  417. 

foreign   commerce,  315-317  ;  statis- 
tics of,  317. 

map  showing  distribution  of  vegeta- 
tion, 319. 

map  of  railroads,  315. 
Russian  Central  Asia,  393-395. 

cotton,  393-394. 

irrigation,  393-394,  395. 

fruits,  395. 

animal  raising,  395. 

map,  395. 
Rustchuk,  322. 
Itybinsk,  313. 

Kve,  63;  diagram  of  world  production, 
04. 

Russia,  63,  307. 

Germany,  218. 

Austria-Hungary,  280. 

Saar,  coal  basin,  220. 
Sabanilla.  373. 
Sable,  89.' 

Sacramento,  river,  151. 
Sacramento,  valley,  55. 
Saginaw,  Mich.,  111. 
Sago  palm,  449-450. 

map  showini!-  distribution  of,  66. 
Sahara,  4*Jii',  45a36L 
Saigon,  432. 

Saint  Anthony  Falls,  151. 
Saint  Bernard  Pass,  273. 
Saint  Clair  river,  152. 
Saint  Etienne,  237,  238. 
Saint  Gallen,  271,  272. 
Saint  George,  387. 
Saint  Gottliard,  273. 
Saint  Gotthard,  tunnel,  274,  289. 
Saint  John,  182. 
Saint  John's,  193. 
Saint  Lawrence    River,  153,  185,  187, 

191-192 
Saint  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,  182. 191. 
Saint  Lawrence,  river  basin,  56. 
Saint  Louis,  23,  142,  144. 161,  155. 
Saint  Louis,  Senegal,  466. 
Saint  Malo,  236. 
Saint  Mary's  River,  152. 
Saint  Naziiire,  230,  240. 
Saint  Paul,  23. 


Saint  Petersburg,  184,  312,  313,   314, 
316-317. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 
Saint  Petersburg  district,  312,  313,  389. 
Saint  Vincent,  469. 
Saliua  Cruz,  330. 
Salisbury,  Rhodesia,  468,  470. 
Salmon,  84-86,  146.  187,  259,  262. 
Salonica,  318,  321,  325. 
Salt,  134;  statistics  of  production,  138. 
Salta,  364. 
Salto,  359. 
Saltpeter,  136. 
Salvador,  340-341  ;  map,  338. 

balsam  of  Peru,  340. 
Samarkand,  395. 
Samoa,  451-452.    — 
San  Bias,  330. 
San  Cristobal,  346. 
San  Diego,  51. 
San  Fernando,  346. 

%^'rancisco,  68,  89, 133, 141, 143, 157, 
^^60-161,  452. 
""San  German,  169. 
San  Joaquin  \' alley,  55. 
San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  342. 
San  Jose,  Guatemala,  337. 
San  Jose,  Uruguay,  360. 
San  Juan,  Argentina,  360,  364. 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  169,  170. 
San  Juan,  province,  363. 
San  Juan  River,  341. 
San  Juan  del  Sur,  341. 
San  Luis,  364. 
San  Luis  Potosi,  332,  333. 
San  Miguel,  340. 
San  Vincente,  340. 
Sandalwood,  451. 
Sandliurst,  441. 

Sandstone,  136, 137,  207,  245,  271. 
Sandy  Hook,  41. 
Santa  Ana,  340. 
Santa  Cruz,  Province,  380. 
Santa  Fe,  364. 

Santander,  Colombia,  370,  372. 
Santander,  Spain,  303. 
Santiago,  Chile,  365,  367. 
Santiago,  Cuba,  179,  180. 
Santo  Domingo,  383,  384. 

statistics,  388. 
Santo  Domingo,  town,  384. 
Santos,  349,  350. 
Sao  Paulo,  State,  348-350. 
Sao   Paolo  de  Loaiida,  Fig.  154.     See 

Loanda. 
Saone.  231. 
Sapphires,  134. 
Saratof,  313. 
Sardines,  86,  187,  236,  458. 

map  showing  fisheries  of,  in  western 
Europe,  85. 


INDEX 


499 


Sardinia,  295. 

Saskatcliewan,  river,  17, 192. 

Saskatchewan,  vallej',  184. 

Savannah,  95,  157. 

Savannas,  18. 

Save,  river,  282,  321. 

Saxaoul  plant,  394. 

Saxony,  219,  221-222,  224-225,  226. 

Scandinavia.     See    Sweden,    Norway, 

and  Denmark. 
Scandinavian  mountains,  15. 
Schelde,  river,  242,  248. 
Schenectady,  N.  Y .,  142. 
Scliiedam,  252. 
Schleswig-Holstein,  219,  225. 
Scotland : 

Highlands  and  Lowlands  of,  196. 

ports,  199. 

fisheries,  203-204. 

for  minerals,  manufactures,  etc.,  see 
United  Kingdom. 
Scranton,  24,  142. 
Seal,  89,  188. 
Sebastopol,  313,  316. 
Seine,  river,  230. 
Semites,  28. 
Seniinering  pass,  278. 
Senegal,  29,  466. 
Senegal,  river,  466. 
SeouT,  432. 
Seraing,  237,  246. 
Serena,  La,  367. 
Sergipe,  State,  349. 
Servia,  321,  324  ;  map,  319. 

statistics,  326. 
Sestri,  297. 
Seville,  300. 
Sevres,  238. 
Sfax,  4:i7. 
Siiad,  84. 

Shanghai,  97,  411,  415,  416,  418,422, 
425. 

map  of  port,  26. 
Shaniftung,  425. 
Shansi,  419. 
Sheep : 

Australia,  435,  437-438. 

Artrt-ntina.  360,  361,  362. 

New  Zealand,  445,  447. 

South  Africa,  473. 

Russia,  308. 

Uniti;<l  States.  81  ;   statistics  of  ex- 
ports, 90. 

Uruguay.  358. 

United  Kingdom,  202. 

Spain.  301. ' 

Altreria.  456. 

Holland,  252. 

Denmark,  265,  266. 
Shefticl.l.  206,209. 
Shenango  Valley,  125, 


Sherry  wine  (Jerez),  300. 
Shiraz,  428. 
Siam,  431. 
Siberia,  389-393. 

minerals,  390-392;  map  showing 
mining  regions,  391. 

immigration,  389. 

Trans-Siberian  railroad,  44,  391. 

furs,  88,  89,  390,  392-393. 

agricultural  map,  391. 
-r-Sieily,  19,  289,  293,  294,  295. 
Sierra  Leone,  466. 
Sierra  Nevada,  55,  116. 
Si-kiang,  421. 
Silesia,  225,  226. 
Silesia,  Upper,  221,  222. 
Silk,  101-102:  tliagram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 102. 

China,  101-102,415. 

Japan,  407-408,  412. 

Italy,  101,  294-295. 

France,  101,  238. 

Russia  in  Asia,  393. 

India,  402. 

value  of  imports  into  United  States, 
106. 
Silk  manufactures : 

United  States,  102;  statistics  show- 
ing value  and  distribution  of  mills, 
106. 

France,  238. 

China.  415-417. 

Italv,  296. 

(ierinany,  223,  225. 

Switzerland,  272. 

Russia,  313. 
Silkworm,  101-102,  408. 
Silver,  132-133  ;  map  showing  distri- 
bution of,   12;   diagram  of  world 
production,  132;  annual  consump- 
tion in  the  arts,  138. 

United  States,  132;  manufactures, 
133. 

Mexico,  332-333. 

Australia,  441. 

Germany,  222. 

Bolivia.  379,  380. 

Spain,  301-302.    V 

Peru,  377,  378. 
Simplon,  pass,  273. 
Simplon  tunnel,  274,  288. 
Singapore,  176-177,399,429,430,  431, 

432,  434. 
Sisal,  330. 
Skunk,  89. 

Slate,  136, 137,  207,  245. 
Smolensk,  .''.13. 
Smyrna,  326  326. 
Societv  Islands,  452. 
Sofia,  ;i>jl,  322. 
Soils,  inlluence  of,  11-14, 


500 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Sokoto,  467. 

Solingen,  223. 

ISolnliofen,  222. 

Solomon  Islands,  450-451. 

Sonson,  373. 

•Soo  Canal,  with  map,  152. 

Sorghum,  68. 

South  Africa,  470-476. 

See   also   ('ape  Colony.  Portuguese 

East   Africa,   German    Southwest 

Africa,  Transvaal,  Orange   River 

Colony,  Rhodesia. 

South  African  Republic,  441.     See  also 

Transvaal. 
South  Australia,  436.  440,  441,  442. 
South  Chicago,  124,  125. 
South  Island,  New  Zealand,  448. 
South  Wales  coal  field,  map,  206. 
Southampton,  158,198. 
Southern  Coastal  Plain,  U.  S.,  54-55. 
Spain,  298-303. 

wine  production,  300  ;  map  showing 
centers  of,  299. 

fruits,  300. 

minerals,    301-302;    map    showing 
mining  regions,  299. 

cork,  301. 

tobacco  manufactures,  302. 

foreign  trade,  303  ;  statistics,  303. 
Sparrow's  Point,  Md.,  143. 
Spencer  Gulf,  443. 
Spermaceti,  88. 
Spezia,  297. 
Spices.  430,  434. 
Spirits,  69,  71,  219,  247,  313,  358. 
Sponges,  88,  294,  384,  455,  459. 
.  Spruce,  104. 109. 
Squirrels,  89. 
Srinagar,  402. 
Staftbrdshire,  209,  210. 
Statlbrdshire  coal  field,  with  map,  206- 

207. 
Stanley  Pool,  465,  467. 
Stanthorpe,  441. 
Stavanger,  262. 

Steel,  126 ;  diagram  of  world  produc- 
tion, 126. 

United  States,  124-125. 

Great  Britain,  206-207. 

Germany,  222-223. 

France,  237-238. 

Russia,  310-312. 

Austria-Hungary,  126. 

Belgium,  245. 
Steel  manufactures : 

United  States,  141-143. 

Great  Britain,  209.  * 

Germany,  222-223. 

France,  237-2S8. 

Belgium,  245-246. 
Steppes,  18,  308,  309. 


Stettin,  215,  216.  217,  225. 
Steyr,  281,  282. 
Stockholm,  261,  262,  263. 
Stockport,  208. 
Stone,  building,  136-137. 
Stones,  precious,  133-134. 
Straits  Settlements,  429-430. 
Strassburg,  226. 
Strathmore,  202. 
Strawberries,  68. 
Stretensk,  391. 
Sturgeon,  86,  187,  317. 
Stuttgart,  226. 
Styria,  2S1. 
Sucre,  380. 

Sudan,  34,  461-462,  Fig.  154. 
Sudan,  British,  467. 
Sudan,  French,  466. 
Sudbury,  136,  190. 
Sud-Guillaume  Canal,  255. 
Suez,  443. 

Suez  Canal,  42,  44,  120,  152,  289,  399, 
400. 

map  of,  42. 
Sugar,  65-68. 

imports  into  United  States.  68  ;  value 
of,  75. 
Sugar  beet,  65;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of  culture,  62 :  diagram  of  beet- 
sugar  production,  67. 

Germany,  219. 

France,  232-233. 

.\ustria-Hungary,  280. 

Russia.  308,  314. 

Belgium,  243,  247. 

Netherlands,  251. 
Sugar  cane,  65  ;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  62;  tliagram  of  cane-sugar 
production,  67. 

.Java,  433. 

Cuba,  178. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  172. 

British  VVe.st  Indies,  385,  386. 

Santo  Domingo,  384. 

(Tuianas,  347. 

Brazil,  349,  350. 

Peru,  376-377. 

Mauritius  and  Reunion,  468. 

Australia,  439. 

Fiji  Islands," 451. 
Sukona-Northern    Dvina    navigation, 

314. 
Suleiman  mountains,  396. 
Sulina,  318. 

Sulphur,  135,  295, 332;  statistics  of  pro- 
duction, 138. 
Sulphuric  acid,  135. 
Sulu  ArchipelaffO,  332. 
Sumatra,  72,  113,  254,  433. 
Sunderland,  206. 
Sungari,  river,  423. 


INDEX 


501 


Superior,  citv,  61, 152-153. 

Superior,  Lake,  122,  129,  152,  190,  191. 

Superior,  Lake,  iron  district,  121-122; 

map  of,  123. 
Susa,  457. 
Suva.  451. 

Svir-Ladoga-Neva  navigation,  314. 
Swakopniund,  471. 
Swansea,  198,  295. 
Swatau,  422. 
Sweden,  258-264. 

lumber  and  timber,  110,  260-261. 

iron,  261. 

fisheries,  259-260. 

dairy  products,  250. 

foreign    commerce,    264;    statistics, 
267. 

laws  on  land  subdivision,  398. 

maps,  260,  263. 
Swine,  80,  321. 
Switzerland,  268-276. 

manufactures,  271-273,  275. 

home  industry,  272. 

cheese-making,  270-271. 

development  of  water  power,    271, 
275. 

railroad  system,  273  ;  map,  274. 

touri.sts,  275. 

foreign  commerce,  273-275. 

st-atistics,  276. 

map  showing  distribution  of  indus- 
tries and  agriculture,  26P. 
Sydney,    161,  361,  438,  439,  440,  441, 

443,  451. 
Sydney,  C.  B.,  182, 190. 
Syra,  323,  324. 
Syria,  326. 
Szechuen,  422. 

Tabriz,  427,  428. 

Tatilet,  di.strict,  459. 

Tairanrog,  316. 

Tahiti,  449,  452. 

Takao.  413. 

Talca.  367. 

Talciihuano.  .367. 

Talh.w,  77.  79-80. 

Tallow  tree,  419. 

Taltal,  368. 

Tampico,  329-330,  333. 

Tamsui.  412-413. 

Tanekaka  bark,  447. 

Tanganyika.  Lake,  468. 

Tangier,  4."i;i. 

Tapioca,  351. 

Tar,  coal,  ll-'i.  119. 

Tar.  wood.  111. 

Tarills,    ettcet    of,   30,    222,   362,   389, 

468. 
Tari.ja,  380. 
TuBajo  (jerked  beef),  369. 


Tashkent,  .314,  .394,  395. 
Tasmania,  440,  441. 
Tea.  71. 

China,  417-418. 

India  and  Ceylon,  403-405,  417. 

Japan,  407,  408,  412. 

Java,  433. 

Natal.  474. 

caravans,  391. 
Teak  wood,  108,  404,  431. 
Tees,  river,  198,  209. 
Tegucigalpa,  340. 
Teheran,  428. 
Tehuantepec,  330. 
Tehuantepec,  Isthmus  of,  330. 
Telegraphs,  47-48. 
Telephones,  47. 
Tell,  457,  458-459. 
Temperature,  5,  6-7. 
Tennessee,  136. 
Terneuzen,  canal,  247. 
Texas,  65,  95,  120. 
Thames,  198,  210. 
Thar,  397. 
Theiss,  river,  282. 
Thessaly,  323. 
Thomaston,  Conn.,  146. 
Thuringia,  222. 
Thuringian  Forest,  225. 
Tiber,  river,  292. 
Tibet,  4,  417,  424. 
Ticondero^a,  136. 
Tientsin.  44,  421,422. 
Titlis,  393. 
TiiTi-is,  17. 

Tilbury,  witli  map  of  docks,  211. 
Tiniaru,  446. 

Timber,  107.  108;  values  of  annual 
consumption  in  Europe  and 
United  States,  205. 

Argentina,  363. 

Paraguay,  356. 

importing  countries,  110,  252,  454. 

See  also  Lumlier. 
Timbuktu,  24.  29,  455.  466. 
Time,  standard  of.  3.5-36. 
Tin,  127;    map   showing  distribution 
of,  13;  diatrrani  of  world  produc- 
tion, 1 27. 

Straits  Settlements,  429-430. 

Banka  and  Billiton,  433. 

Enirland.  207. 

Bolivia,  379. 

Tasmania,  440.  441. 

.Mexico,  332-3.33. 
Tin-plate  industry  : 

United  States,  127. 

Knghm<l.  20'.i. 
Titicaca.  hike,  378. 
Titusvillc.  l-.'o. 
Tiumeii,  391. 


502 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


Tobacco,  72;  map   showing  distribu- 
tion of,  58. 

United  States,  72-73  ;  value  of  ex- 
ports, 75. 

India,  403. 

Cuba,  72,  73,  178,  179. 

Persia,  428. 

Brazil,  72,  349,  350. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  433. 

Austria-PIungary,  280. 

Mexico,  72,  331,  334. 

Germany,  218. 

Santo  Domingo,  384. 

Kussia,  308. 

Turkey,  72,  325. 

imports  and  manufacture  in  Nether- 
lands, 52,  54. 
Tobago,  island,  386. 
Tobolsk,  province,  390. 
Togoland,  4a6. 
Tokay  wine,  280. 
Tokio,  407. 

map  showing   comparative   size   of, 
21. 
Toledo,  Ohio,  152. 
Tolu  balsam,  372. 
Tome,  367. 
Tomsk,  S91,  392. 
Tomsk,  province,  390. 
Tonawanda,  110. 
Tonga  group,  452. 
Tonka  beans,  345. 
Tonkin,  431,  432. 
Topography,   effect  on   commerce  of, 

14-19. 
Toronto,  183,  191. 
Tortoise  shell,  342,  434,  450. 
Tourcoing,  239. 
Tourinalinc,  134. 
Tournui,  246-247. 
Tours,  238. 
Towns,  causes  determining  location  of, 

22-24. 
Townsville.  443. 
Trade- winds,  19-20. 

map  showing  directions  of,  20. 
Trans-Caspian  Railroad,  394,  427. 
Trans-Caucasia,  307,  393,  394. 
Trans-Siberian  Railroad,  44,  391,  423. 
Transportation,  39-48. 

waterways  and  navigation,  39-44, 
45 ;  number  of  vessels,  48. 

railroads,  44;  diagram  showing 
growth  of,  154;  map  showing 
most  important,  and  projected, 
Fig.  1. 

draft  animals,  45-47. 

map  showing  highwavs  of  the  world, 
Fig.  1. 
Transvaal,  471,  474  475. 
Treaties,  commercial,  30. 


Treaty  ports : 

China,  422. 

Japan,  407. 
Trebizond,  427. 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  54,  137,  140. 
Trieste,  88,  96,  284,  285. 
Trinidad,  386. 

population,  387. 
Trinidad,  Cuba,  179,  ISO. 
Tripoli,  29,455-456. 
Tripoli,  city,  456. 
Trondhjeni,  262,  263  ;  map,  25. 
Troppau,  282. 
Troy,  23. 
Trujillo,  339. 
Truro,  190. 
Tucacas,  345,  346. 
Tucumaii,  364. 
Tula,  31-3. 
Tundra,  309,  389. 
Tunis,  4Sr,  458-459;  Fig.  154. 

olive  oil,  459. 

statistics,  460. 
Tunis,  town,  4.57,  458. 
Tunny,  map  showing  distribution  of, 

85. 
Turin,  289,  291. 

Turkestan,  Chinese  (Eastern    Turke- 
stan), 417,  423-424. 
Turkestan,  Russian,  393-395. 

See  also  Russian  Central  Asia. 
Turkey,  European,  324-325;  map,  319. 

Asiatic,  325-326. 

tobacco,  72,  325. 
Turks,  27,  324. 
Turpentine,  111-112. 
Turquoise,  134,  428. 
Tuscan V,  291,  295. 
Tussar  silk,  101,  402,  415. 
Tutuila,  173. 
Tuxpan,  332. 
Tver,  313. 
Two  Harbors,  123. 
Tyne,  river,  198,  209,  210. 
Typhoons,  20,  406. 
Tyrol,  280,  283. 
United  Kingdom,  195-213. 

population,  195;  map  showing 
density  of,  200. 

shipping  facilities,  198-199,  210. 

agriculture,  199-202;  map  showing 
distribution  of,  201. 

imports  of  foodstuffs,  fibers,  and 
timber,  '-'00-203,  204,  205,  210-211. 

fisheries,  203-204. 

coal  and  iron,  117,  205-207;  dia- 
grams of  production,  118,  122; 
map  showing  coal  fields,  206. 

cotton  manufactures,  97,  207-208. 

woolen  industries,  2Q8-209. 

shipbuilding,  206. 


INDEX 


503 


United  Kingdom,  potteries,  map  show- 
ing region  of,  207. 
metal  and  other  manufactures,  209- 

210. 
merchant  marine,  210. 
railroads,  210  ;  map,  197. 
foreign  commerce,  210-212  ;  statistics 

of,  212-213. 
colonies.    See  Australia,  Canada,  In- 
dia,  Ceylon,   Straits   Settlements, 
New  Zealand,  Cape  Colony,  etc. 
United  States,  49-167. 
topography,  5.3 ;  orographic  map,  52. 
climate,  49-50;  map  showing  distri- 
bution of  rain,  50. 
density  of  population,  map,  51. 
Transportation  : 
railroads,    44,    154-157 ;    diagram 
showing  growth  of,  154;   map, 
156. 
internal  navigation,  149-154  ;  map, 

150. 
cheap  freight  rates,  42,  149,  155. 
coasting  and  deep-sea  trade,  157- 

158. 
deficiency  of  merchant  marine,  158. 
Agricultural  industries : 
as  an  agricultural  nation,  57. 
distribution  of  leading   products, 

54-56. 
wheat  and  flour,  55,  59-61 ;  value 

of  exports,  74. 
maize,  61-6.3,  exports,  74. 
wine  industry,  69-71. 
tobacco  and  manufactures  of,  72- 

73 ;  exports  of  leaf,  75. 
hay,  73. 

sugar  imports,  68  ;  statistics,  75. 
coffee    and    tea    imports,    71-72; 
value  of,  75. 
Animal  industries  : 
meat  industry,  76-81 ;  statistics  of 

exports,  90-91. 
dairying,  79  ;  value  of  e.xports,  90- 

91. 
fisheries,    56,     83-88;     value     of 
catch,  91-92. 
Fiber  industries : 
cotton  culture  and  manufactures, 

55,94-98;  statistics,  105. 
wool    and    woolen    manufactures, 

81,  98-101  ;  statistics,  106. 
silk  manufactures,  102;  statistics, 

106. 
paper,  104-105. 
Forest  industries  : 

lumber,  109-111  ;  statistics,  114. 
furniture  making.  111. 
cooperage  industry,  144. 
India-rubber  manufactures,    112- 
U3;  imports oferude rubber,  115. 


United  States,  mineral  industries: 
mineral  wealth,  117. 
coal,    117-119 ;    value  of  exports, 

127. 
iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures 
in    them,     122,     126,    141-143; 
statistics,  128,  147. 
petroleum,    119-120 ;    maps,    120, 

121 ;  statistics  of  e.xports,  128. 
natural   gas,   119 ;    map  showing 

field  ot;  121. 
copper,  129-130;  output  and  ex- 
ports, 137. 
precious  metals  and  manufactures 

in  them,  131-133. 
phosphate,  136. 
clay  and  potteries,  137. 
Miscellaneous  manufactures : 
leather  making,  144:  value  of,  147. 
boots  and  shoes,  144-145  ;    value 
and  distri !  )Ution  of  industry,  ]  48. 
watch    and    cluck    manufactures, 

133,  146. 
glass  industry,  146. 
canning  industry,  145-146. 
ready-made  clothing,  146. 
manufactures,  distribution  of,  139- 

140;  growth  and  value,  147. 
foreign  commerce,   165-166;  statis- 
tics of,  166-167. 
colonies.       See    Hawaiian    Islands, 
Porto    Kico,    Philippine    Islands, 
Guam,  Tutuila. 
Ural  Mountains,  134, 136,  305,  310. 
Urga,  391,  423. 
Uruguay,  358-360. 
map,  357. 

grazing  industry,  358-359. 
wheat,  359. 
statistics,  368. 
Uruguay,  river,  359,  360,  362. 
Ussuri,  river,  390,  391. 
Utah,  65,  135. 
Utrecht,  252. 

Valdai  Hills,  305. 

Valdivia,  365.  367. 

Valencia,  302-303. 

Valencia,  Gulf  of,  .300,  301. 

Valencia,  Venezuela,  343,  344,  346. 

Valera,  346. 

Valladolid,  300. 

Valley  of  Eoses,  321. 

Valleys,  facilitate  transportation.  17- 

18. 
Valparaiso,  365,  367. 
Valparaiso,  province,  367. 
V^1ncouver,  182. 
Vanilla,  331,  452,  468. 
Varna,  318,  322. 
Vaseline,  121, 


504 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Vegetable  products,  maps  showing  dis- 

tribution  of,  58,  ti2,  66,  70. 
Vegetation,  map  showing  distribution 

of,  10. 
Venetia,  295,  296. 
Venetian  glass,  297. 
Venezuela,  343-344. 

cofiee,  344,  346. 

cattle  raising,  345. 

climate,  343,  370. 

map,  344. 

statistics,  353. 
Venice,  288,  289,  297. 
Vera  Cruz,  329-330. 
Vera  Cruz,  state,  331. 
Vermont,  68,  137. 
Verviers,  245,  246. 
Viborg,  317. 
Vichegda-Northern  Dvina  navigation, 

314. 
Vicksburg,  152. 
Victoria,  Australia,  436,  437,  438,  439, 

440,  441,  442,  443. 
Victoria,  Brazil,  349. 
Victoria,  B.  C,  182. 
Victoria  Nyanza,  468. 
Vicuna,  99,  380. 
Vienna,  23,  278,  280,  282,  283,  284. 

map  showing  comparative  size  of,  21. 

diagram  sliowing  uses  to  wliicli  its 
area  is  devotecf,  22. 
Vilna,  312. 

Vine  growing.     See  Grapes  and  Wine. 
Virginia,  73,  97. 
Virginia,  West,  146. 
Visavas,  175. 

Vistula,  river,  215,  217,  312. 
Vladimir,  313. 

Vladivostok,  44,  389,  391,  392,  432. 
Vodka,  63. 

Volga  river,  305,  307,  313,  314,  393. 
Volga- Kama  navigation,  314. 
Volga-Mologa  navigation,  314. 
Volga  and  Msta-Ladoga-Neva  naviga- 
tion, 314. 
Volga-Sheksna  navigation,  314. 
Volga-Sheksna-Belo  Ozero  navigation, 

314. 
Vuelta  Abajo,  179. 

Waikato  River,  447. 
Waldenburg,  221. 
Wales,  199,  207.  209. 
Walflsh  Bay,  471. 
Wallaroo,  441. 
Walnut  tree,  108. 
Warsaw.  312,  313. 
Wasliington,  Territory,  42,  60. 
Water  carriage,  39-44,  45. 
Waterbury,  Conn.,  146. 
Water  power,  16,  271,  275. 


Water  power,  its  great  future,  140. 

Waterford,  199. 

Wei-hai-wei,  425. 

Welland  Canal,  152,  153, 192^^ 

Wellington,  446.    '^ 

Wener,  Lake,  261. 

Weser,  river,  215. 

West  Australia,  440,  441,  442. 

West  Indies,  383-386. 

destructive  hurricanes.  383,  384. 
West  Indies,  British,  384-386. 

statistics,  387-388. 
Westphalia,  220. 
Westphalian  hams,  220. 
Westpoit,  New  Zealand,  448. 
Wetter,  Lake,  261. 
Whale,  88. 

Wheat,  59-61 ;  map  showing  distribu- 
tion of,  58 ;  diagram  of  world  pro- 
duction, 59. 

United  StJites,  55,59-61 ;  statistics  of 
production,  74;  valuQ  of  exports, 
74;  map,  60. 

Kussia,  307. 

Argentina;  362-363. 

France,  232. 

Algeria,  456. 

India,  400. 

Uruguay,  359. 

Austria-Hungary,  279. 

Rumania,  320. 
Wheat  flour: 

United  States,  61  ;  value  of  exports, 
74. 

Russia,  313-314,  315. 

Hungary,  279. 

France,  232. 
Wlieat  versus  rye  bread,  232. 
Wlieelinff,  W.  Va.,  73. 
Whisky."'63,  71. 
Whiteflsh,86. 
Whitnev,  Eli,  95. 
Wieliczka-Bochnia,  282. 
Willielmshaven,  215. 
Willamette,  river,  151. 
Willamette,  valley,  55. 
Wilmington,  N.  C,  111. 
Wilton,  209. 
Winds,  map  showing  prevailing,  20. 

effect  on  climate,  7. 

etfeet  on  navigation,  19-20. 

as  a  power,  251. 
Windward   Islands,   386 ;   population, 

387. 
Wine,  69;  map  showing  distribution 
of  industry,  70. 

France,  69,  234-235. 

Italv,  69,  293. 

Spain,  69,  300. 

Algeria,  456. 

Austria-Hungary,  280. 


INDEX 


505 


Wine,  United  States,  69-71. 

Russia,  308,  3a3. 

PortUfjal,  303. 

Australia,  439-440. 
Winuipetr,  182,  188. 
Winsted,""l46. 
Winterthur,  273. 
Wisconsin.  50.  72,  104,  109,  153. 
WitwattTsrand.  474. 
Wood  pulp,  104, 189,  308. 
Woods,  Lalve  of  the,  189. 
Wool,  93,  98-99;   diagram  of  world 
production,  98. 

Australia,  361,  435,  437-438. 

New  Zealand,  445,  447. 

Argentina,  98,  361. 

Urutfuay,  359. 

United  States,  81,  99. 

United  Kingdom,  202. 

Soutli  Africa,  473. 

Tibet,  424. 

Denmark,  265,  267. 

Mongolia,  423. 

Spain,  301. 
W'oolen  manufactui'es : 

Great  Britain,  207-208 ;  value  of  ex- 
ports, 213. 

United  States,  99-100. 

France,  239. 

Belgium,  246. 

Germany,  224-225. 
Woonsocket,  97. 
Worcester,  Mass.,  142. 
Wuchang,  418. 

Vak,  45,  46.  424. 

Yaiii^stse  Kiver,  17,  415,  421.  422. 

Yangtse  Valley,  18,  36,  97,  415,  425. 


Yarkand,  424. 

Yarmouth,  203. 

Yarmouth,  N.  S.,  182. 

Y'arra,  river,  443. 

Yatung,  424. 

Yemen,  326. 

Yenisei,  river,  391,392. 

Yerba  mate  (Paraguay  tea),  355-356. 

Yezd,  428. 

Yezo.  406.  407,  411. 

Yokohama.  407,  408. 

Yola,  Fig.  154. 

Yonkers,  100. 

Yorkshire-Derbyshire  coal  field,  206, 

209. 
Yucatan,  103,  331. 
Yukon,  189. 
Yuruari,  345. 

Zacatecas,  332,  333. 
Zambesi,  river,  468. 
Zante,  324. 

Zanzibar,  429,  430,  468. 
Zara,  284. 
Zajjuma,  375. 
Zebus,  398. 
Zeebrugge,  247. 
Zerafshan,  395. 

Zinc,  134;    statistics    of   production, 
138. 

Germany,  222. 

Belgium,  245. 

Russia,  310. 
ZoUverein,  227,  249. 
Zuider  Zee,  250. 
Zuricli,  102,  271,  272,  273,  274. 
Zurieli  lake,  273. 
Zwickau,  224. 


THE    END 


^/z- 


C\^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    001  006  800    5 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGELES.  CALIPOR^iU 


1 


